UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 


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,  IQO 


Received 
Accession  No.       8  3163    -  '  C/a«s  Afo. 


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shall  pa.?  the  cost  of  such  book  and  a  fine  of  fifty 
cents;  and  any  person  injuring  a  book  shall  be  liable 
to  a  fine  not  exceeding  the  cost  of  the  book,  to  be 
assessed  by  the  librarian. 

5.  —  Any  person  refusing  or  neglecting  to  pay  any 
penalty  or  i  ne  shall  not  be  allowed  to  draw  any  ocok 


,  ,  ^        .f          ^ 

".—  -Tne    liDiarirfn*   »fta44  -report  annually,  -at  each 
sessio^  -of  the.  County  Institutes  the  iiu.mbe.r  and  con- 
dition bfbooks  irftne'fibrary,    th*e  numoer  ffrfd  titid* 
of-  books  purchas'egl.or  received  bj  donation,  and  the 
amount  derived  froniifiiies'ansl  either  sources.         4    . 


/          -  -    -^       '' " 


DEPARTMENT  OF  PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION 

State  of  California,  Amndor  County, 

JACKSON  DISTRICT  LIBRAR  , 


HUGHE'S  CITY  HIGH  SCHOOL,  CINCINNATI 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTUBE; 


OR, 


CONTRIBUTIONS 


THE  IMPROVEMENT  OF  SCHOOLHOUSES 


THE  UNITED  STATES 


BY  HENRY  BARNARD,  LL.  D., 

SUPERINTENDENT   OF   COMMON    SCHOOLS    IN   CONNECTICUT. 


-IXTH  EDITION. 


PUBLISHED  BY  A.  S.  BARNES  &  BUKR, 

51    AND    53    JOHN    STEEET. 

I860. 


&% 


PREFACE. 


AT  the  National  Convention  of  the  Friends  of  Public  Education,  held 
in  Philadelphia,  on  the  17th,  18th,  and  19th  of  October,  1849,  and  of  which 
Hon.  Horace  Mann  was  President,  Prof.  James  Henry,  Secretary  of  the 
Smithsonian  Institution  in  Washington  City,  Hon.  Elisha  R.  Potter, 
Commissioner  of  Public  Schools  of  Rhode  Island,  and  Greer  B.  Duncan, 
Esq.  of  New  Orleans,  were  appointed  a  Committee  to  report  to  the  next 
Convention  on  the  subject  of  School  Architecture,  including  the  location, 
ei^e,  ventilation,  warming,  and  furniture  of  buildings  intended  for  educa- 
tional purposes.  At  the  second  Convention  held  in  Philadelphia,  on  the 
23d,  24th,  and  25th  of  August,  1850,  and  of  which  Rev.  Dr.  Nott,  of  Union 
College,  was  President  the  following  Report,  prepared  by  Mr.  Potter,  of 
Rhode  Island,  was  submitted  by  Prof.  Henry,  with  some  introductory  re- 
marks on  the  general  subject  of  American  Architecture.  The  Report 
was  ordered  to  be  printed  with  the  Proceedings  of  the  Convention. 

REPORT. 

The  subject  of  School  Architecture  has  not,  till  within  a  comparatively 
recent  period,  received  that  attention  from  the  public  generally,  or  from 
practical  educators  in  particular,  which  its  important  bearings,  direct  and 
indirect,  on  the  health,  manners,  morals,  and  intellectual  progress  of  chil- 
dren, and  on  the  health  and  success  of  the  teacher,  both  in  government 
and  instruction,  demand.  The  earliest  publication  on  the  subject  in  this 
country,  which  has  met  the  notice  of  the  Committee,  maybe  found  in  the 
School  Magazine,  No.  1,  published  as  an  Appendage  to  the  Journal  of 
Education,  in  April,  1829.  In  1830,  Mr.  W.  J.  Adams,  of  New  York,  de- 
livered a  lecture  before  the  American  Institute  of  Instruction,  "  on  School 
houses  and  School  Apparatus,"  which  was  published  in  the  first  volume  of 
the  transactions  of  that  association.  Stimulated  by  that  lecture,  the  Di- 
rectors of  the  Institute  in  the  following  year  offered  a  premium  of  twenty 
dollars  for  the  best  "  Essay  on  the  Construction  of  School-houses"  The 
premium  was  awarded  by  a  committee  of  the  Institute  to  the  Essay  by 
Dr.  William  A.  Alcott,  of  Hartford,  Conn.,  now  residing  in  West  New- 
ton, Mass.  This  "  Prize  Essay"  was  published  in  the  second  annual 
volume  of  lectures  before  the  Institute,  as  well  as  in  a  pamphlet,  and 
was  widely  circulated  and  read  all  over  the  country.  In  1833,  the  Essex 
County  Teachers'  Association  published  a  "  Report  on  School-houses" 
prepared  by  Rev.  G.  B.  Perry,  which  is  a  searching  and  vigorous  ex- 
posure of  the  evils  resulting  from  the  defective  construction  and  arrange- 


83163 


6  PREFACE. 

merit  of  School-houses.  From  this  time  the  subject  began  to  attract 
public  attention,  and  improvements  were  made  in  the  construction  and 
furniture  of  school-rooms,  especially  in  large  cities  and  villages. 

In  1838,  Hon.  Horace  Mann  submitted  a  "  Report  on  School-houses,"  as 
supplementary  to  his  First  Annual  Report  as  Secretary  of  the  Board  of 
Education  in  Massachusetts,  in  which  the  whole  subject,  and  especially 
that  of  ventilation,  is  discussed  with  great  fullness  and  ability.  This  Re- 
port was  widely  circulated  in  a  pamphlet  form,  and  in  the  various  educa- 
tional periodicals  of  the  country,  and  gave  a  powerful  impulse  to  improve- 
ment in  this  department,  not  only  in  Massachusetts,  but  in  other  states. 
In  the  same  year.  Hon.  Henry  Barnard  prepared  an  "  Essay  on  School 
Architecture,"  in  which  he  embodied  the  results  of  much  observation, 
experience  and  reflection,  in  a  manner  so  systematic  and  practical  as  to 
meet  the  wants  of  all  who  may  have  occasion  to  superintend  the  erection, 
alteration,  or  furnishing  of  School-houses.  This  Essay  was  originally 
prepared  and  delivered  as  a  lecture  in  the  course  of  his  official  visits  to 
different  towns  of  Connecticut,  as  Secretary  of  the  Board  of  Commis- 
sioners of  Common  Schools.  It  was  first  published  in  1841,  in  the  Con- 
necticut. Common  School  Journal,  and  in  1842  was  submitted,  with  some 
modifications  and  numerous  illustrations,  as  a  Report  on  School-houses,  to 
the  Legislature.  It  may  be  mentioned  as  an  evidence  of  the  low  apprecia- 
tion in  which  the  whole  subject  was  regarded  at  that  time,  in  a  State  which 
prides  herself  on  the  condition  of  her  common  schools,  and  on  the  liberality 
with  which  her  system  of  public  education  is  endowed,  that  the  Joint 
Standing  Committee  on  Education,  on  the  part  of  the  Senate  and  House, 
refused  to  recommend  the  publication  of  this  Essay,  although  it  is  by  far 
the  most  thorough,  systematic  and  practical  discussion  of  the  subject 
which  has  appeared  in  this  country  or  in  Europe.  And  it  was  only 
through  the  strenuous  efforts  of  a  few  intelligent  friends  of  school  improve- 
ments that  its  publication  was  secured,  and  then,  only  on  condition  that 
the  author  should  bear  the  expense  of  the  wood-cuts  by  which  it  was 
illustrated,  and  a  portion  of  the  bill  for  printing.  Since  its  first  publica- 
tion more  than  one  hundred  thousand  copies  of  the  original  Essay  have 
been  printed  in  various  forms  and  distributed  in  different  states,  without 
any  pecuniary  advantage  to  the  author. 

In  1842,  George  B.  Emerson,  Esq.,  in  Part  Second  of  the  School  and 
Schoolmaster,  devoted  a  chapter  to  "  The  School-house,"  in  which  sound 
and  practical  views  of  the  location,  size,  and  ventilation  and  warming  of 
edifices  for  school  purposes,  are  presented  and  illustrated  by  appropriate 
cuts.  A  copy  of  this  valuable  work  was  presented  to  each  of  the  11,000 
school  districts  in  the  State  of  New  York,  and  each  of  the  3,400  districts 
in  Massachusetts.  In  1846,  Nathan  Bishop,  Esq.,  Superintendent  of 
Public  Schools  in  the  City  of  Providence,  published  a  Report  on  the 
School-houses  of  that  city,  with  numerous  wood-cuts  illustrative  of  the 
peculiarities  of  the  furniture  and  internal  arrangements  of  the  buildings 
devoted  to  each  grade  of  school.  These  houses  were  constructed  after  an 
examination  of  the  latest  improvements  which  had  been  introduced  in  the 
School-houses  of  Boston,  Salem,  and  other  large  cities  and  villages  in 
Massachusetts,  and  have  been  much  consulted  by  committees  and  build- 
ers as  models. 

In  1848,  Mr.  Barnard  republished  his  Essay,  with  plans  and  descrip- 
tions of  numerous  School-houses  which  had  been  erected  under  his  direc- 
tion, in  Rhode  Island  and  Connecticut,  and  including  by  permission  all  of 
the  plans  of  any  value,  which  had  been  published  by  Mr.  Mann,  Mr. 
Emerson.  Mr.  Bishop,  and  other  laborers  in  this  field— with  the  title  of 
"  School  Architecture,  or  Contributions  to  the  Improvement  of  School- 
houses  in  the  United  States."  As  the  title  conveys  a  very  inadequate 
view  of  the  fullness  and  completeness  of  this  valuable  work,  the  Committee 


PREFACE.  7 

feel  that  they  can  not  better  promote  the  object  of  their  appointment  than 
by  calling  the  attention  of  the  Convention  to  the  general  views  with 
which  the  subject  was  approached  by  this  Author,  and  to  the  table  of 
contents  which  will  be  found  appended  to  the  extracts  which  we  have 
been  permitted  to  make  from  this  volume. 

"  The  subject  was  forced  on  the  attention  of  the  author  in  the  very  out- 
set of  his  labors  in  the  field  of  public  education.  Go  where  he  would,  in 
city  or  country,  he  encountered  the  district  School-house,  standing  in  dis- 
graceful contrast  with  every  other  structure  designed  for  public  or  domes- 
tic use.  Its  location,  construction,  furniture  and  arrangements,  seemed 
intended  to  hinder,  and  not  promote,  to  defeat  and  not  perfect,  the  work 
which  was  to  be  carried  on  within  and  without  its  walls.  The  attention 
of  parents  and  school  officers  was  early  and  earnestly  called  to  the  close 
connection  between  a  good  school-house  and  a  good  school,  and  to  the 
great  principle,  that  to  make  an  edifice  good  for  school  purposes,  it  should 
be  built  for  children  at  school,  and  their  teachers ;  for  children  differing  in 
age,  sex,  size,  and  studies,  and  therefore  requiring  different  accommoda- 
tions j  for  children  engaged  sometimes  in  study  and  sometimes  in  recita- 
tion ;  for  children  whose  health  and  success  in  study  require  that  they 
shall  be  frequently,  and  every  day,  in  the  open  air,  for  exercise  and  rec- 
reation, and  at  all  times  supplied  with  pure  air  to  breathe ;  for  children 
who  are  to  occupy  it  in  the  hot  days  of  summer,  and  the  cold  days  of 
winter,  and  to  occupy  it  for  periods  of  time  in  different  parts  of  the  day,  in 
positions  which  become  wearisome,  if  the  seats  are  not  in  all  respects  com- 
fortable, and  which  may  affect  symmetry  of  form  and  length  of  life,  if  the 
construction  and  relative  heights  of  the  seats  and  desks  which  they  occu- 
py are  not  properly  attended  to  ;  for  children  whose  manners  and  morals, 
whose  habits  of  order,  cleanliness  and  punctuality, — whose  temper,  love 
of  study,  and  of  the  school,  are  in  no  inconsiderable  degree  affected  by 
the  attractive  or  repulsive  location  and  appearance,  the  inexpensive  out- 
door arrangements,  and  the  internal  construction  of  the  place  where  they 
epend  or  should  spend  a  large  part  of  the  most  impressible  period  of  their 
lives.  This  place,  too,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind,  is  to  be  occupied  by  a 
teacher  whose  own  health  and  daily  happiness  are  affected  by  most  of  the 
various  circumstances  above  alluded  to,  and  whose  best  plans  of  order, 
classification,  discipline  and  recitation,  may  be  utterly  baffled,  or  greatly 
promoted,  by  the  manner  in  which  the  School-house  may  be  located, 
lighted,  warmed,  ventilated  and  seated.  With  these  general  views  of 
school  architecture,  this  essay  was  originally  written." 

The  volume  will  be  found  on  examination  to  contain: 

1.  An  exposition,  from  official  documents,  of  common  errors  in  the  loca- 
tion, construction,  and  furniture  of  School-houses  as  they  have  been  here- 
tofore almost  universally  built,  even  in  states  where  the  subject  of  edu- 
cation has  received  the  most  attention. 

2.  A  discussion  of  the  purposes  to  be  answered,  and  the  principles  to  be 
observed,  in  structures  of  this  kind. 

3.  Descriptions  of  a  variety  of  plans,  adapted  to  schools  of  every  grade, 
from  the  Infant  School  to  the  Normal  School,  in  a  variety  of  styles,  hav- 
ing a  Gothic,  Elizabethan,  or  classic  character,  and  on  a  large  or  small 
scale  of  expense ;  either  recommended  by  experienced  educators,  or  fol- 
lowed in  buildings  recently  erected  in  this  country  or  in  Europe. 

4.  Numerous  illustrations  of  the  most  approved  modes  of  constructing 
and  arranging  seats  and  desks,  and  of  all  recent  improvements  in  appa- 
ratus for  warming  and  ventilating  school-rooms  and  public  halls  generally. 

5.  A  catalogue  of  maps,  globes,  and  other  means  of  visible  illustra- 
tion, with  which  each  grade  of  school  should  be  furnished,  with  the  price, 
and  place  where  the  several  articles  can  be  purchased. 

6.  A  list  of  books,  with  an  index  or  table  of  contents  to  the  most  impor- 


8  PREFACE. 

tant  volumes  on  education,  schools,  school  systems,  and  methods  of  teach- 
ing, suitable  for  school  libraries,  with  reference  to  catalogues  from  which 
village  libraries  may  be  selected. 

7.  Rules  and  regulations  for  the  care  and  preservation  of  School-houses, 
grounds,  and  furniture. 

8.  Examples  of  exercises  suitable  to  the  dedication  of  School-houses  to 
the  sacred  purposes  of  education. 

9.  A  variety  of  hints  respecting  the  classification  of  schools. 

It  will  not  be  necessary  to  specify  further  the  official  reports  and  peri- 
odicals in  which  the  subject  has  been  discussed  within  a  few  years  past, 
or  to  mention  in  detail  the  various  improvements  which  have  been  intro- 
duced in  the  construction  of  school  furniture,  and  in  modes  of  ventilation 
and  warming.  Most  of  the  plans  which  have  been  brought  before  the 
public,  and  which  have  been  found  on  trial  to  be  valuable  contributions  to 
plans  before  published,  are  embodied  in  the  recent  editions  of  Mr.  Barnard's 
work.  In  conclusion,  the  Committee  beg  leave  to  present  the  following 
summary  of  the  Principles  of  School  Architecture,  which  the  author  of 
that  work  has  drawn  up  at  their  request,  as  presenting  the  result  of  his 
observations  and  practical  knowledge  in  this  department  of  educational 
improvement.  He  has  also  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  Committee  nu- 
merous plans  for  schools  of  different  grades,  selected  from  his  book,  or 
prepared  for  subsequent  editions,  which  are  herewith  communicated  as  a 
part  of  this  Report. 

Philadelphia,  Aug.  23,  1850. 

The  above  Report  was  published  as  an  Introduction  to  an  abridg- 
ment of  this  work,  under  the  title  of  Practical  Illustrations  of  the  Prin- 
ciples of  School  Architecture,  and  is  adopted  in  this  revised  and  en- 
larged edition,  of  the  original  treatise,  because  it  contains  not  only  a  brief 
and  accurate  sketch  of  the  various  publications  on  the  subject  of  School 
Architecture,  but  a  summary  of  the  aims  and  contents  of  this  volume. 

HENRY  BARNARD. 

Office  of  Superintendent  of  Common  Schools. 
HARTFORD,  CONN.,  February  1st,  1854. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE. 
PREFACE. 

Report  of  Committee  on  School-houses,  to 
the  National  Convention  of  the  Friends 

of  Education,  in  1850, 5 

SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

I.  COMMON  ERRORS  TO  BE  AVOIDED. 

Extracts  from  Official  School  Documents, 
showing  the  condition  of  School-houses  in 

Connecticut, 16 

Massachusetts, 26 

New  York, 29 

Vermont 34 

New  Hampshire, 36 

Maine 37 

Rhode  Island 38 

Michigan 39 

New  England,  generally, 44 

Illustrations, 

School-houses  as  they  are 45 

II.  GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  TO  BE  OBSERVED. 

1.  Site, 47 

2.  Ynrd, 47 

3.  Size  of  Building, 47 

4.  Size  of  School-room, 47 

5.  Classroom, 47 

6.  Light,     47 

7.  Warming 47 

8.  Ventilation, ^ 47 

9.  Desk, 47 

10.  Seats,   48 

II.  Aisles, 48 

12.  Accommodation  for  Teacher, 48 

13.  Library  and  Apparatus, , ....  48 

14.  External  Appearance, , .  48 

15.  Residence  for  Teacher, 48 

16.  Privies,  48 

17.  Gymnastic  and  Calisthenic  Exercises,  48 

PLANS  OF  SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

Circumstances  to  be  regarded, 49 

One  school  of  scholars  of  different  ages,  49 

Two  school-rooms, 49 

Two  or  more  schools, 49 

Different  systems, 49 

PLANS    OF   SCHOOL-HOUSES    WITH    ONE 
SCHOOL-ROOM. 

District  Schools, — General  Condition, 50 

Infant  and  Primary  Schools,       do       50 

Location,  Yard,  and  Play  Ground, 51 

Play  Ground  of  Infant  and  Primary  School,  52 

Apparatus  for  Gymnastic  Exercises, 56 

Russell's  Gymnasium,  New  Haven, 58 

Bell,  Wood",  or  Coal-house,  and  Privy, 63 

Illustrations, 

Play  Ground  of  Infant  School, '. 53 

Climbing  Stand, 56 

Horizontal  Bars, 56 


PAOX. 

Parallel  Bars, 57 

Wooden  Swing, 57 

Double  Inclined  Plane, 58 

Wooden  Horse 58 

Slanting  Ladder, 58 

Plan  of  Russell's  Gymnasium, 59 

Inclined  Ropes, 60 

Vaulting  Bar, 60 

Rotary  Swing, 54 

Water-closet, 63 

PLANS  OF  SCHOOL-HOUSES  RECOMMENDED 
BY  PRACTICAL  TEACHERS  AND  EDUCA- 
TORS. 

Plan  by  Dr.  William  A.  Alcott, 64 

Illustration, 

School-room  for  56  pupils, 65 

Plan  by  Horace  Mann, 64 

Illustrations, 

School-room,    65 

Location  in  Union  District, 65 

Plan  by  George  B.  Emerson, 66 

General  Principles  to  be  observed, 66 

Illustrations, 

Perspective  of  School-house,  &c., 67 

Front  Projection,  with  Trees,   &c.,...  68 

Movable  Blackboard, 70 

Section  of  Fire-place, 70 

Ventilating  Apparatus, 71 

School-room  for  120  pupils, 72 

School-room  for  48  pupils, 72 

Plan  by  Messrs.  Town  and  Davis 73 

Advantages  of  the  Octagonal  shape, ....  73 

Mode  of  lighting  by  skylight, 74 

Illustrations, 

Perspective  of  octagonal  School-house,  73 

School-room, 74 

Section  of  smoke  and  ventilating  pipe,  75 

Design  in  the  pointed  style, 76 

Plan  of  Octagonal  School-house  near  Lon- 
don,    76 

Illustration, 

School-room,    76 

Plan  for  Village  School,  by  Dr.  Dick, 77 

Illustration, 

Plan  of  Yard,  &c., 77 

Plans  of  School-rooms  for  different  systems 

of  instruction, 79 

Plan  for  Infant  School 78 

Illustration, 

School-room  and  Grounds, 78 

Plan  by  Wilderspiu, 55 

Plan  for  Schools  on  the  Monitorial  System,  81 
Illustrations, 

School-room  on  the  plan  of  Lancaster,  82 

School-room  on  the  plan  of  Dr.  Bell,. .  82 

Plans  for  Schools  on  the  Mixed  System,  re- 
commended by  Committee  of  Council  on 

Education 83 


10 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


PAGE. 

Organization  of  Schools  in  parallel  groups 

of  Desks, 85 

Illustrations, 

School-room,  with  Movable  Partition,.  83 

School-room,  with  four  Class  rooms,. .  84 

Section  of  Desk 84 

Arrangement  of    Curtain   to  separate 

Classes, 88 

Plans  of  School-rooms,  with  Classes  sepa- 
rated by  Curtains,  88 

No.  1.  School  for  48  boys  and  girls,  in  4 

classes, 88 

2.  School  for  48  boys  and  girls,  with 

classroom,   88 

3.  School  for  72  boys  or  girls,  in  5 

classes 


4.  School  for  72  boys  and  girls, 

5.  "       "  120    "     or      "      in    5 


classes, 


89 

90 

6.  School  for  168  boys  or  girls, 90 

7.  "        "240    "     in  8  classes,..     91 

8.  Infant  School, 91 

Plan  of  Village  National  School, 92 

Illustrations, 

Perspective, 92 

Ground  Plan 92 

Plans  for  Rural  and  Villnge  School,  recom- 
mended by  Massachusetts  Board  of  Edu- 
cation   $ 

Mode  of  Ventilation, S 

Directions  for  making  Black-plaster  Wall,.     93 
Hints  for  the  arrangement  of  School-rooms,    94 
Illustrations, 
Plans  for  Rural  and  Village  Schools,. .     94 

95 

90 


No.  1.  School-room;  building  46  by  30 
2.  «  "  36  by  26 
5  "  "  48  by  30 

40b'y28  97 
50  by  42  98 
44  by  48  99 

44  by  48  100 
40  by  52  101 
60  by  48  102 

45  by  60  103 
40  by  60  104 
35  by  62  105 
52  by  70  106 


37  by  40  107 

ia.  37  by  38  107 

Section  exhibiting  Mode  of  Ventilation,  108 


Plan  by  Dr.  A.  D.  Lord, 
Illustration, 
School-room, 


109 
109 


PLANS  OF  SCHOOL-HOUSES  RECENTLY 

ERECTED. 

Remarks  on  Plans  furnished  or  sanctioned 
by  the  Author, Ill 

PLANS    FOR    DISTRICT  SCHOOL-HOUSES, 
ONE  STORY  HIGH. 

Plan  of  School-house,  30  by  20,  in  Bloom- 
field,  Conn., 112 

Illustrations, 

Front  Elevation, 

Plan  of  Warming  and  Ventilation,. . . . 

Ground  Plan, 

Plan  of  School-house,  34  by  22,  in  Wind- 
sor, Conn., 114 

Illustrations, 

Perspective, 114 

Ground  Plan, 115 

Plan  of  District  School-house,  40  by  25,  in 
Barringlon,  R.  I., 116 

Illustration?, 


PACK. 

Perspective, 116 

Seat  and  Desk, 116 

Ground  Plan, 117 

Plan  of  District  School,  34  by  25 118 

Illustration, 
Ground  Plan, 118 

Plan  of  District  School-house,  36  by  27,. . .  118 
Illustration, 
Ground  Plan, 118 

Plan  of  District  School-house,  50  by  30 119 

Illustration, 
Ground  Plan, 119 

Plan  of  District  School-houses  in  Michigan,  119 
Illustration, 
Ground  Plan, 119 

Plans  of  District  School-houses    recently 

erected  in  New  Hampshire, 120 

Illustrations, 

District  School-room  in  Dublin, 120 

"  "  Greenland  N.  II.    121 

PLANS  OF  SCHOOL-HOUSES  FOR  UNION  OR 
GRADED  SCHOOLS. 

Classification  of  Schools, 123 

Plan    of  School-house  for  two  schools  in 

Centerdale,  R.  I., 133 

Illustrations, 

Elevation,  Trees,  &c., 133 

Ground  Plan,  26  by  51, 133 

Plan   of  School-house  for  two    schools  in 

Washington  Village,  R.  I., 134 

Illustration, 
Ground  Plan, 134 

Plan   of  School-house   for  two  schools  in 

Warren,  R.  I., 135 

Illustrations, 

Location  and  Yards, 136 

First  Floor,  62  by  44, 137 

Second  Floor, 137 

Plan  of  School-house  for  three  schools  in 

Chepachet,    133 

Illustrations, 

Side  and  Front  Elevations, 138 

First  Floor,  50  by  34, 139 

Second  Floor, 139 

Plan  of  School-house  for  four  schools  in 

Pawtucket,  R.  I., 140 

Illustrations, 

Perspective, 140 

First  Floor,  three  schools, 141 

Second  Floor, 141 

Plans  of  School-houses  for  schools  of  dif- 
ferent grades  in  Providence,  R.  I., 142 

Primary  School-house,  142 

Illustrations, 
Perspective  of  a  Primary  School-house,  142 

Ground  Plan, 143 

Tops  of  desks  for  two  pupils, 144 

Section  of  seat  and  desk  for  two  pupils,  144 

Intermediate  School-house, 144 

Illustrations, 

Perspective  of  Inter.  School-house,...  145 

Section  of  Ventilators 144 

Internal  arrangement 176 

Section  of  Writing  Desk  and  Seat, 177 

Grammar  School-house, 148 

Illustrations, 

Perspective  of  Grammar  School-house,  149 

Plan  of  Yard,  Basement,  &c.,  do 150 

First  Floor,  Primary  and  Inter.  Schools,  151 

Second  Floor,  Grammar  School, 152 

Section, 153 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


11 


PAGE. 

High  School-house, 154 

Illustrations, 

Perspective, 155 

Basement, 156 

First  Floor, 157 

Second  Floor, 157 

Movable  Seat  and  Desk  for  two, 158 

Vertical  Section  of  Furnace, 158 

Plan   of  Graded   School-house   in  Arsenal 

District,  Hartford, 160 

Illustrations, 

Front  Elevation, 160 

Ground  Plan 160 

Perspective,  for  two  Schools, 161 

Plan  of  Graded  School-house  in  South  Dis- 
trict, Hartford,  162 

Illustrations, 

Perspective,    162 

First  Floor, 163 

Second  Floor, 164 

Third  Floor, 165 

Plan  of  High  School-bouse  in  Hartford,...  166 

List  of  Apparatus, 168 

lUnstratisns, 

Perspective, 170 

Plan  of  Yard  and  Basement, 171 

First  Floor, 172 

Second    Floor 172 

Section  showing  Ventilation, 173 

Seat  and  Desk, 173 

Plans  of  School-houses  recently  erected  in 

Boston, 174 

Organization  of  Public  Schools, 174 

iDgraham  Primnry  School-house,  Boston,..  176 
Educational  value  of  School  decorations,..  189 
Specifications  for  building  Primary  School- 
house .?. : 191 

Composition  for  making  Black  Wall, 197 

Illustrations, 

Play  Ground  and  First  Floor 177 

Internal  arrangements, Second  Floor,..  179 

Third  Floor, 180 

Primary  School  Chair, 181 

View  of  Front  Wall, 181 

Section  of  Smoke  Flues, 182 

Section  of  Ventiducts 183 

Position  of  Flues  and  Ventiducts, 184 

Ventilation,  &c.,  of  Privies, 186  j 

Plan  of  Brimmer  Grammar  School-house,..  198 
Illustrations, 

First  and  Second  Floor, 198  ! 

Third   Floor, 199  j 

Plan   of  Bowdoin  Grammar  School-house,  200  ! 
llluftrations, 

Fi  rst  and  Second  Floor, 201  i 

Third   Floor, 201  j 

Plan  of  Quincy  Grammar  School-house,..  202 

Illustration, 

First   Floor, 203, 

Remarks  at  Dedication  of  Quincy  Grammar 

School 204  ! 

Classification  of  large  schools  in  Boston,  ..  206 

Internal  Arrangement  of  School-houses,...  206 

Form  of  Specification, 207 

Plan  of  Putnam  Free  School-house,  Xe\v- 

bury  port, 

Illustrations, 

First  Floor, 

Second  Floor, 

Plan  of  East  Public  School,  Salem, 

Illustration, 

First   Floor 

Second   Floor, 

Kimbail's  Chair  and  Desk, 


PAG«. 

Description    of   Latin   and    Engliih  High 

School,  Salem, 218 

Plans    of  School-houses   in   city  of  New 

York, 220 

History  of  Public  Schools, 220 

Plan  of  Public  School-house, 222 

Illustrations, 

Primary  Department, 223 

Second*  Floor 224 

Plan  of  Primary  School-house, 225 

Illustrations, 

Section  of  Gallery, '.....  226 

Seat  and  Desk, 226 

Mott's  Patent  Revolving  Chair, 227 

Plan  of  Ward  School,  No.  29 228 

Illustrations, 

Perspective, 228 

Basement, 230 

Pri  mary  Department, 233 

Ink-box  and  Well, 231 

Plan  of  Ward  School-house,  No.  30, 232 

Illustrations, 

Front  Elevation, 232 

Basement, 233 

First  Floor, 234 

Second  and  Third  Floor 235 

Primary  School  Chair  and  Desk 235 

Teacher's  Desk, 235 

Cover  to  Ink-well, 234 

Plan  of  Free  Academy-building. 236 

Illustrations, 


Perspecti 


218 
238 


210 

212 
213 

114 

116 

117 
115 


Mode  of  Warming  and  Ventilation,. 

Basement, 5CRJ 

FirstFloor, 240 

Second  and  Third  Floor, 241 

Desk  and  Chairs, 241 

Plan  of  Academy-building,  Rome,  N.  Y.,..  243 
Illustrations, 

Perspective, 243 

Basement, 243 

Desk  and  Chairs, 244 

First  Floor, 245 

Second  Floor, 245 

Plans  of  School-houses  recently  erected  in 

Philadelphia, ." 246 

History  and  Condition  of  Public  Schools,..  246 

Plans  of  Jefferson  Grammar  School-house,  248 
Illustrations, 

Perspective, 248 

First  Floor, 249 

Plans  of  North-East  Grammar  School-house,  250 
Illustrations, 

Perspective,    250 

FirstFloor, 251 

Plans  of  Warner  Grammar  School-house,.  252 
Illustrations, 

Perspective,   252 

First  Floor, 252 

Plans  of  Greenwood  School-house, 253 

Illustrations, 

Perst>ecti  ve, 253 

First  Floor, 253 

Plans  of  Central  High  School, 254 

Mode  of  Ventilation, 256 

Influence  of  the  School, 258 

Occupations  of  Pupils, 259 

Illustrations, 

Perspective, 254 

Basement, 255 

FirstFloor, 256 

Second  and  Third  Floor, 25« 


12 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


PAGE. 

History  of  Public  Schools  of  Cincinnati,..  261 

Hughes  City  High  School, 261 

Illustrations, 

Perspective, 260 

Basement — Laboratory, 262 

First  Floor, 262 

Second  Floor, 263 

High  Schools,  their  place  in  a  System  of 
Public  Instruction, 265 

Plans  for  Normal  Schools  and  Schools  of 

Practice,   

History  of  Normal  Schools, 


Plans  of  Normal  School  Buildings  in  Mass., 
Illustrations, 
Bridgewater  State  Normal  School,. . . . 

Front  Elevation, 

First   Floar, 

Second  Floor, 

Westfield  State  Normal  School, 

Front  Elevation, 

First  Floor, 

Second  Floor, 

Framingham  State  Normal  School,... 

Front  Elevation, 

First  Floor, 

Plans  of  State  Normal  School  Building  at 

Albany,  N.  Y., 

Illustrations, 

Perspective, 

Basement, 

First  Floor, 

Second  Floor, 

Third  Floor, 

Fourth  Floor, 

Desk  and  Chairs..., 


287 

286 

Plans  of  State  Normal  School  at  New  Brit- 
ain, Conn., 288 

Illuftratiuns, 

Perspective, 288 

Basement, 290 

First  Floor, 291 

Second  Floor, 292 

Third  Floor, 293 

Plans  of  City  Normal  School,  Philadelphia,  294 
Illustration*. 

Perspective, 294 

Cellar  Furnaces, 294 

First  Floor, 295 

Second   Floor, 295 

Third  Floor, 295 

Plans  of  Normal  and  Model  School  Building 

at  Toronto,  Upper  Canada, 296 

Illustration^, 

Front  and  Side  View, 297 

Ground  Plan, 299 

Second  Floor, 301 

Rear  and  Side  View, 300 

Plans  of  Kneller  Hall  Training  School,  Eng- 
land,    302 

Illustration, 
Perspective, 302 

VENTILATION  AND  WARMING. 

General  Principles, 303 

Report  of  Dr.  H.  G.  Clark  on  Ventilation  of 

Grammar  School  in  Boston, 307 

General  Rules  of  Boston  Committee, 314 

Construction  of  Ventiducts, 323 

Mode  recommended  by  J.  W.  Ingraham,. .  185 

Mode  adopted  by  Prof.  Hart, 247 

Mode  recommended  by  G.  B.  Emerson,. . . .  329 
Illustrations, 

Example  of  imperfect  Ventilation, 310 

Plan  in  Eliot  School-house,  Boston,  ..  312 
"      Endicott  School-house, 313 


PAOK. 

General  Plan  in  Grammar  Schools,  ...  314 

Section  of  Chilson's  Furnace, 317 

Section  of  Ventilating  Stove, 317 

Emerson's  Ejecting  Ventilator, 318 

"          Injecting  Ventilator, 319 

Elevation  of  Ventiducts, 320 

Cold-air  Ducts  and  Smoke  Flues 320 

Section  of  Apparatus  in  a  building  of 

two  stories 321 

First  Floor  of  do., 322 

Second  Floor  of  do., 322 

Section  of  Ingraham  School-house,...  184 
Section  of  Hartford  High  School-house,  173 

Plan  recommended  by  D.  Leach, 109 

Apparatus  for  Warming, 324 

Culver's  Hot-Air  Furnace, 324 

"      Portable  Furnace, 325 

Directions  for  using, 326 

Culver's  Laboratory  Furnace, 328 

Mott's  Ventilating  School  Stove, 330 

Boston  Ventilating  Stove, 331 

Chilson's  Portable  Furnace, 331 

"        Air     Wanning    and    Ventilating 

Furnace, 332 

Directions  for  setting  Chilson's  Furnace,..  334 

"          for  using,  do. 334 

"         for  making  Ventiducts 338 

Bushnell's  Hot-air  Furnace, 339 

Double  Fire-place, 340 

Illustrations, 

Double  Fire-place — horizontal  section,  340 
"  "  perpendicular  "        340 

Mott's  Ventilating  School  Stove 329 

Boston  Ventilating  Stove, 331 

Chilson's  Trio  Portable  Furnace, 331 

"        School  Stove, 331 

"        Ventilating  Furnace, 332 

Plans  for  setting  Chilson's  Furnace,. . .  334 

Section — ground  and  plan, 334 

u        position  and  thickness  of  walls,  335 

Culver's  Hot-air  Furnace, 324 

Bushneil's  Hot-air  Furnace, 339 

SCHOOL  FURNITURE. 

General  Principles 341 

Scale  of  Dimensions, 343 

Illustrations, 

Bench  with  Back, 344 

Gallery  for  Infant  School, 344 

Sand  Desk 344 

Gallery  used  in  National  Schools, 345 

Gallery  in  Burough  Road  School, 345 

Closing  Gallery, 345 

Desks  and  Seats  made  of  wood, 346 

Range  of  Seats  and  Desks, 346 

Shattuck's  Primary  School  Chair, 349 

Boston  High  School  Desk  and  Chair,..  346 

Mott's  School  Chair  and  Desk, 348 

Hartford  School  Chair  and  Desk, 347 

Wales'  Improved  School  Furniture,. . .  350 
No.  1.  American  School  Chairs, 350 

2.  do.,   with  desk  for  two  pupils,  350 

3.  do.,  "          one  pupil,  354 

4.  New  England  School  Chairs,..  351 

5.  do.,    with  desk  for  two  pupils,  351 

6.  do.,  do.,          one  pupil,  352 

7.  Bowdoin  School  Chairs, 352 

8.  do.,       with  desk  for  two,..  352 

9.  do.,  do.,        one,..  353 

10.  Washington  School  Chair, 358 

11.  do.,  with  desk  for  two  pupils,  353 

12.  do.,  do.,        one  pupil,  354 

13.  Normal  School  Desk  for  two,. .  354 

14.  do.,        do.,      do.,       one,..  353 

15.  Improved  Writing  Stools, 355 

16.  Primary  School  Chair, 355 

17.  Basket  Primary  School  Chair,..  555 

18.  Improved  Settees, 356 

19.  Improved  Lyceum  Settees, 356 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


13 


PAGE. 

20.  Teacher's  Arm  Chair, 356 

21.  do.  do.,  with  cushions,  357 

22.  Teacher's  table  without  drawers,  357 

23.  do.        do.,  with  one  drawer,  357 

24.  do.        do.,  with  two  drawers,  358 

25.  Movable  Skeleton  Desk, 358 

26.  "          Portable  Desk, 358 

27.  Teacher's  Desk 358 

28.  do.,  with  drawers  nnd  table  top,  358 

29.  do.,         do.          and  top  desk,  358 

30.  do.,  two  drawers  and  table  top,  259 

31.  do.,         do.          and  top  desk,  359 

32.  do.,  four  drawers  and  table  top,  359 

33.  do.,         do.          and  top  desk,  359 

34.  do.,  six  drawers  and  table  top,  360 

35.  do.,        do.  and  top  desk,  360 

36.  do.,      with  bookcase  in  front,  360 

37.  do.,  do.  do.         361 

38.  do.,  do.  do.         361 

39.  Teacher's  desk,  with  bookcase,  361 

Drawing  Desks, 362 

Illustrations, 

A  Leaf  and  Drawing  Desk, 362 

Bracket  to  support  Leaf, 363 

Ross'  Movable  Drawing  Desk, 363 

Drawing  Desk  and  Board  recommended  in 

Schools  of  Practical  Art,  England, 364 

Movable  Support  and  Drawing  Board, 365 

Ross' American   School  Furniture, 366 

Scale  of  Heights, 366 

Illustrations, 
No.  1.  N.  Eng.  Primary  School  Chair,  366 

2.  N.  Y.  Primary  School  Chair,..  366 

3.  N.  Eng.  Pri.  Sen.  Basket  Chair,  366 

4.  do.  Pri.  Sch.  Desk  and  Chair,  367 

5.  do 367 

6.  do.  Intermediate, 367 

7.  do.  do 367 

8.  N.Y.  Pri.  double  desk  and  chair,  368 

9.  Village  desk,  with  seat  attached,  368 

10.  Improved  Writing  Stool, 369 

11.  Improved  sand  top  Chair, 

12.  Sin.  Gram.  sch.  desk  and  chair, 

13.  Double  do 

14.  Single  high  school  desk,  with  lid, 

15.  Double  do 

16.  Desk  and  chair  for  young  ladies, 

17.  do.          with  portfolio, 

18.  do 

19.  do 

20.  do 

21.  Lowell  Institute  Drawing  Desk, 

22.  Improved  Ink  Well, 

23.  "  "       "     

24.  Settee  for  Recitation  Room,. . . 

25.  Teacher's  Chair. . . 


"21. 


Recitation  Room  Table, , 

Primary  School  Table, 

it  it  U 

Teacher's  Table  with  drawer, 
"          Desk 


APPARATUS. 


General  Arrangements, 383 

Articles  indispensable  in  every  school, 384 

"       for  Primary  and  District  Schools,.  384 


PAGE 

Articles  for  Grammar  Schools, 397 

"   High  School, 401 

Illustrations , 

Movable  Lesson  Post, 384 

Gonigraph,   391 


Allen's  Spelling  and  Reading  Table,..  385 
Hanging  Blackboard  and  Shelf, 


386 


Movable  Blackboard, 387 

Easel,   or  Movable   Stand  for  Black- 
board,    387 

Map  Exhibitor, 387 

Sponge  Box  or  Damper, 390 

Box  and  Cover  for  Glass  Ink  Well,. . .  391 

Arithmeticon  or  Numeral  Frame, 391 

Geometrical  Forms  and  Solids, 392 

Block  to  illustrate  Cube  Root, 394 

Drawing  Slate, 394 

Terrestrial  Globe, 395 

Hemisphere  Globe, 395 

Tellurian, 396 

Planetarium, 396 

Inertia  Apparatus, 398 

Collision  Balls  and  Stand, 398 

Laws  of  Motion, 399 

Mechanicals, 400 

Hydrostatics,    400 

Hydraulics, 401 

Pneumatics, 401 

Electricity, 402 

Composition  for  Blackboard, 387 

Directions  for  making  Blackboard 387 

"       Black  Plaster  Wall,.  389 

"         "        "  "      Canvas, 388 

"         "        "       Crayons,    389 

"          "  procuring  Lnrge  Slates, 390 

Goodyear's  applications  of  Metallic  Gum  to 

school  purposes, 411 

Book  Binding  and  Covers, 411 

Maps  and  Charts, 411 

Globes, 411 

Blackboard,    412 

Calisthenic  Exercises, 412 

Set  of  Apparatus— cost,    $50 403 

100 404 


200,. 
400,. 
500,. 
700,. 
1000, 


....  406 

....  407 

....  408 

....  409 

+™,, 410 

List  of  Examples  and  Casts  for  Drawing 

Classes, 411 

LIBRARY. 

Arrangements  for  a  School  Library, 413 

Catalogue  of  Books  on  Education, 413 

CARE   AND  PRESERVATION  or  SCHOOL- 
HOUSES. 

Rules  adopted  in  Rhode  Island, 435 

Susgestions  respecting  Fires,  Sweeping, 

Dusting, 436 

Regulations  of  Chauncey  Hall  School, 

Boston,  438 

Remarks  of  Mr.  Thayer, 440 

DEDICATORY  EXERCISES. 

School  Celebration  at  Salem,  Mass., 402 

Remarks  of  G.  B.  Emerson, 402 

"        "   G.  F.  Thayer, 405 

Dedication  of  School-house,  N.  Providence,  450 

Address  of  President  Wayland, 450 

Dedication  of  High  School,  Cambridge,...  457 

Remarks  of  President  Everett, 459 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


IN  treating  of  School  Architecture,  it  will  be  convenient  to  pie 
ent — 

I.  Common  Errors  to  be  avoided. 
II.  General  Principles  to  be  observed. 

Ill  Plans  and  directions  for  erecting  and  fitting  up  school-houses 
adapted  to  the  varying  circumstances  of  country  and  city,  of  a 
small,  and  a  large  number  of  scholars,  of  schools  of  different 
grades  and  of  different  systems  of  instruction. 

I.    COMMON  ERRORS  IN  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

Under  this  head  it  will  be  sufficient  to  enumerate  the  principal 
features  of  school-houses  as  they  are. 

They  are,  almost  universally,  badly  located,  exposed  to  the  noise, 
dust  and  danger  of  the  highway,  unattractive,  if  not  positively  repul- 
sive in  their  external  and  internal  appearance,  and  built  at  the  least 
possible  expense  of  material  and  labor. 

They  are  too  small.  There  is  no  separate  entry  for  boys  and  girls 
appropriately  fitted  up  ;  no  sufficient  space  for  the  convenient  seating 
and  necessary  movements  of  the  scholars  ;  no  platform,  desk,  or  re- 
citation room  for  the  teacher. 

They  are  badly  lighted.  The  windows  are  inserted  on  three  or 
four  sides  of  the  room,  without  blinds  or  curtains  to  prevent  the  in- 
convenience and  danger  from  cross-lights,  and  the  excess  of  light 
falling  directly  on  the  eyes  or  reflected  from  the  book,  and  the  dis- 
tracting influence  of  passing  objects  and  events  out  of  doors. 

They  are  not  properly  ventilated.  The  purity  of  the  atmosphere 
is  not  preserved  by  providing  for  the  escape  of  such  portions  of  the 
air  as  have  become  offensive  and  poisonous  by  the  process  of  breath- 
ing, and  by  the  matter  which  is  constantly  escaping  from  the  lungs 
in  vapor,  and  from  the  surface  of  the  body  in  insensible  perspiration 

They  are  imperfectly  warmed.  The  rush  of  cold  air  through 
cracks  and  defects  in  the  doors,  windows,  floor  and  plastering  is  not 
guarded  against.  The  air  which  is  heated  is  already  impure  from 
having  been  breathed,  and  made  more  so  by  noxious  gases  arising 
from  the  burning  of  floating  particles  of  vegetable  and  animal  matter 
coming  in  contact  with  the  hot  iron.  The  heat  is  not  equally  dif- 


1(3  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

fused,  so  that  one  portion  of  a  school-room  is  frequently  overheated, 
while  another  portion,  especially  the  floor,  is  too  cold. 

They  are  not  furnished  with  seats  and  desks,  properly  made  and 
adjusted  to  each  other,  and  arranged  in  such  a  manner  as  to  promote 
the  comfort  and  convenience  of  the  scholars,  and  the  easy  supervision 
on  the  part  of  the  teacher.  The  seats  are  too  high  and  too  long,  with 
no  suitable  support  for  the  back,  and  especially  for  the  younger  chil- 
dren. The  desks  are  too  high  for  the  seats,  and  are  either  attached 
to  the  wall  on  three  sides  of  the  room,  so  that  the  faces  of  the  schol- 
ais  are  turned  from  the  teacher,  and  a  portion  of  them  at  least  are 
tempted  constantly  to  look  out  at  the  windows, — or  the  seats  are  at- 
tached to  the  wall  on  opposite  sides,  and  the  scholars  sit  facing  each 
other.  The  aisles  are  not  so  arranged  that  each  scholar  can  go  to 
and  from  his  seat,  change  his  position,  have  access  to  his  books,  at- 
tend to  his  own  business,  be  seen  and  approached  by  the  teacher, 
without  incommoding  any  other. 

They  are  not  provided  with  blackboards,  maps,  clock,  thermometer, 
and  other  apparatus  and  fixtures  which  are  indispensable  to  a  well 
regulated  and  instructed  school. 

They  are  deficient  in  all  of  those  in  and  out-door  arrangements 
which  help  to  promote  habits  of  order,  and  neatness,  and  cultivate 
delicacy  of  manners  and  refinement  of  feeling.  There  are  no  ver- 
dure, trees,  shrubbery  and  flowers  for  the  eye,  no  scrapers  and  mats 
for  the  feet,  no  hooks  and  shelves  for  cloaks  and  hats,  no  well,  no 
sink,  basin  and  towels  to  secure  cleanliness,  and  no  places  of  retire- 
ment for  children  of  either  sex,  when  performing  the  most  private 
offices  of  nature. 

LEST  the  author  should  be  thought  to  exaggerate  the  deficiencies  of 
school-houses  as  they  have  been  heretofore  constructed,  and  as  they  are 
now  almost  universally  found  wherever  public  attention  has  not  been 
earnestly,  perseveringly,  and  judiciously  called  to  their  improvement,  the 
following  extracts  from  recent  official  school  documents  are  inserted,  re- 
specting the  condition  of  school-houses  in  states  where  public  education 
has  received  the  most  attention. 

CONNECTICUT. 
ExTRACT/rom  the  "  First  Annual  Report  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Board 

of  Commissioners  of  Common  Schools  for  1838-39. 
"  In  the  whole  field  of  school  improvement  there  is  no  more  pressing 
need  of  immediate  action  than  here.  I  present  with  much  hesitation, 
the  result  of  my  examinations  as  to  several  hundred  school-houses  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  State.  I  will  say,  generally,  that  the  location  of  the 
school-house,  instead  of  being  retired,  shaded,  healthy,  attractive,  is  in 
some  cases  decidedly  unhealthy,  exposed  freely  to  the  sun  and  storm,  and 
in  nearly  all,  on  one  or  more  public  streets,  where  the  passing  of  objects, 
the  noise  and  the  dust,  are  a  perpetual  annoyance  to  teacher  and  scholar, 
— that  no  play-ground  is  afforded  for  the  scholar  except  the  highway, — 
that  the  size  is  too  small  for  even  the  average  attendance  of  the  scholars, 
— that  not  one  in  a  hundred  has  any  other  provision  for  a  constant  supply 
of  that  indispensable  element  of  health  and  life,  pure  air,  except  the 
rents  and  crevices  which  time  and  wanton  mischief  have  made ;  that  the 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AS  THEY  ARE.  17 

scats  and  desks  are  not,  in  a  majority  of  cases,  adapted  to  children  of  different 
sizes  and  ages,  but  on  the  other  hand  are  calculated  to  induce  physical 
deformity,  and  ill-health,  and  not  in  a  few  instances  (I  state  this  on  the 
authority  of  physicians'  who  were  professionally  acquainted  with  the 
cases.)  have  actually  resulted  in  this — and  that  in  the  mode  of  warming 
rooms,  sufficient  regard  is  not  had  either  to  the  comfort  and  health  of  the 
scholar,  or  to  economy. 

That  1  have  not  stated  these  deficiencies  too  strongly,  I  beg  leave  to 
refer  you  to  the  accompanying  returns,  respecting  the  condition  of  school- 
houses  in  more  than  eight  hundred  districts  in  the  State,  and  in  more 
than  forty  particulars  in  each.  These  returns  were  made  from  actual 
inspection  and  measurement  of  school-houses  by  teachers  and  others. 
An  abstract  of  them  in  part  will  be  found  annexed,  together  with  ex- 
tracts from  letters  received  from  school  officers  on  the  subject.  I  might 
accumulate  evidence  of  the  necessity  of  improvement  here  for  every 
district  in  the  State.  Without  improvement  in  many  particulars  which 
concern  the  health,  the  manners  and  morals  of  those  who  attend  school, 
it  is  in  vain  to  expect  that  parents  who  put  a  proper  estimate,  not  only 
on  the  intellectual,  but  the  physical  and  moral  culture  of  their  children, 
will  send  to  the  district  school. 

The  following  extracts  are  taken  from  official  documents,  published  in 
1846  and  1847,  and  fair  specimens  of  the  manner  in  which  school-houses 
are  spoken  of,  in  the  reports  of  local  committees,  from  different  parts  of 
the  State. 

"  In  one  district  the  school-house  stands  on  the  highway,  with  eighty 
pupils  enrolled  as  in  attendance,  in  a  room  nineteen  and  a  half  feet 
square,  without  any  outbuildings  of  any  kind. 

In  another  in  the  same  town,  the  school-house  is  less  than  seven  feet 
high,  and  the  narrow  slab  seats  are  twenty-one  inches  high,  (four  inches 
higher  than  ordinary  chairs.)  The  walls,  desks,  &c.,  are  cut  and  marked 
with  all  sorts  of  images,  some  of  which  would  make  heathens  blush. 

In  another,  the  room  is  fourteen  feet  square,  and  six  feet  five  inches 
high.  The  walls  are  very  black." 

"  In  this  town  there  is  one  of  the  most  venerable  school  servants  in  the 
State.  The  room  is  small,  and  less  than  seven  feet  high.  Slab  seats- 
extend  around  three  sides  of  the  room,  and  are  too  high  for  men.  The 
skill  of  several  generations  must  have  been  expended  in  illustrating  the 
walls  with  lamp  smoke  and  coal  images.  The  crevices  of  the  floor  will 
admit  any  quantity  of  cold  air.  The  door  sill  and  part  of  the  house 
eill  have  rotted  away.  The  day  I  visited  it,  the  teacher  and  pupils  were 
huddled  around  the  stove." 

"  In  one  district,  the  house  stands  near  the  travelled  road,  is  low  and 
email,  being  only  seventeen  feet  by  seventeen,  and  seven  feet  twro 
inches  high,  for  the  accommodation  of  sixty  or  seventy  pupils.  The 
seats  on  the  outside  are  from  seventeen  to  eighteen  inches.  Tho 
walls,  door,  and  sides  of  the  house  are  disfigured  with  obscene  images.'' 

"  There  are  only  three  good  school-houses  in  the  society ;  only  three 
that  have  any  out-houses.  The  rest  of  the  school-houses  are  in  a  miser- 
able condition.  One  is  thirty-five  or  forty  years  old.  Most  of  them 
have  only  slab  seats,  with  the  legs  sticking  through,  upwards,  like 
hatchel-teeth,  and  high  enough  to  keep  the  legs  of  the  occupants  swing- 
ing. They  are  as  uncomfortable  to  little  children  as  a  pillory.  Seats 
and  desks  are  adorned  with  every  embellishment  that  the  ingenuity  of 
professional  whittlers  can  devise." 

2 


j  g  SCHOOL  HOUSES  AS  THEY  ARE. 

"  Two  of  our  school-houses,  those  in  the  two  largest  districts,  are  in  a 
bad  condition,  old,  unpainted  and  inconvenient.  They  are  built  and  con 
structed  inside  on  the  old  Connecticut  plan.  Only  one  row  of  desks,  and 
that  fastened  to  the  wall  of  the  school-room,  running  quite  around  it ; 
and  long  forms,  without  backs  to  rest  on,  the  scholars  sitting  with  their 
backs  to  the  centre  of  the  room.  The  other  two  are  in  better  condition, 
though  one  is  constructed  on  the  same  plan  as  above.  The  out-buildings 
are  in  bad  condition  generally.  One  school-house  has  no  out-building 
nor  wood-house.  One  school-house  only  is  painted  outside." 

"  Of  the  nine  school-houses  in  this  society,  not  one  is  really  what  they 
all  ought  to  be,  for  the  morals,  health,  and  intellectual  improvement  of 
the  pupils.  Four  of  them  are  considered  tolerably  good,  having  one  out- 
building, the  other  five  are  hardly  passable.  The  desks  in  most  or  all  of 
them  are  where  they  never  ought  to  be,  against  the  sides  of  the  room 
and  against  one  end,  and  with  few  exceptions,  all  of  a  height,  with  poor 
accommodations  for  loose  clothes,  hats,  &c.;  all  located  on  or  near  some 
highway ;  no  play-ground  attached  to  any  of  them,  except  the  highway." 

"  A  part  of  our  school-houses  are  comfortable  buildings,  but  destitute  of 
every  thing  like  taste  or  ornament  in  the  grounds,  structure,  or  the  furni- 
ture of  the  rooms.  Being  generally  built  in  the  public  highway  or  close 
by  its  side,  they  are.  one  and  all,  without  enclosures,  ornamental  or  shade 
trees.  But  the  want  of  ornament  is  by  no  means  the  greatest  defect  ot 
our  school-houses ;  a  majority  of  them  are  not  convenient.  Although 
there  has  been  some  improvement  in  those  recently  built,  yet  they  are  not 
so  good  as  would  be  desirable.  The  out-buildings  in  too  many  cases  are 
in  a  neglected  condition,  and  in  some  districts  are  not  provided  at  all,  in- 
dicating an  unpardonable  neglect  on  the  part  of  parents  and  guardians." — • 
East  Windsor. 

"  It  appears  that  a  great  proportion  of  the  school-houses  are  in  a  sad 
condition  and  of  bad  architecture.  Architectural  drawings  should,  there- 
fore, be  scattered  over  the  state,  so  that  in  the  buildings  to  be  erected 
those  abominations  may  be  avoided  which  are  now  so  abundant." — Glas- 
tenbury. 

"  The  internal  construction  of  most  of  our  school-houses  is  bad,  and  occa- 
sions great  inconvenience  and  hindrance  to  the  prosperity  of  our  schools. 
Let  as  much  be  done  as  can  be,  to  remove  those  miserable  prison-houses 
for  our  children,  and  in  their  stead  let  there  be  good,  large,  and  conven- 
ient school-houses."— Suffield,  2d. 

"  None  of  our  school-houses  have  play-grounds  attached ;  they  generally 
stand  in  the  highway,  and  some  on  a  corner  where  several  roads  meet." — 
Bethany. 

"  Another  evil  is  the  poor,  cold,  inconvenient  and  gloomy  school-houses 
which  we  find  in  many  districts.  There  is  one  in  this  society  not  more 
attractive  than  a  barn,  for  comfort  and  accommodation  in  a  cold  day :  the 
best  I  can  say  about  it  is,  it  is  thoroughly  ventilated." — Lebanon,  kth. 

"  The  houses  and  the  internal  arrangement  are  inconvenient ;  a  slanting 
board  the  whole  length  of  the  house  for  a  desk,  and  a  slab-board  for  a  seat 
so  high  that  the  scholars  cannot  reach  the  floor  with  their  feet,  constitute 
the  conveniences  of  half  of  the  schools  in  this  society." — Easton. 

"  We  see  many  a  school-house  which  looks  more  like  some  gloomy, 
dilapidated  prison,  designed  for  the  detention  and  punishment  of  some 
desperate  culprit,  than  a  place  designed  for  the  intellectual  training  of  the 
children  of  an  enlightened  and  prosperous  nation.  Instead  of  being  ren- 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AS  THEY  ARE.  j  9 

dered  pleasant  and  attractive  to  the  youthful  mind,  they  are  almost  as 
cold  and  cheerless  as  an  Indian  wigwam." — Chaplin. 

"  Many  of  our  school-houses  are  in  a  miserable  condition,  possessing  less 
attractions  outwardly  than  our  prisons,  while  within  they  are  dark, 
gloomy  and  comfortless.  They  are  all  destitute  of  an  appearance  of  any 
out-house." —  Warren. 

"  The  general  plan  of  all  the  school-houses  is  the  same.  Writing  desks 
are  placed  around  the  room  against  the  walls ;  these  are  generally  so 
high  that  it  would  be  inconvenient  for  adults,  much  more  for  children  to 
use  them.  The  seats  stand  in  front  of  these,  so  that  the  pupil  has  his 
option  to  sit  with  his  face  or  his  back  to  the  teacher.  In  the  former  case, 
he  has  the  edge  of  the  writing  desk  to  support  his  back ;  in  the  latter, 
nothing.  An  arrangement  like  this  is  the  worst  possible.  Of  the  five 
school-houses  in  the  society,  two  may  be  warmed  so  as  to  be  comfortable 
at  all  times;  a  third  needs  nothing  but  a  good  stove;  but  the  remaining 
two  cannot  be  made  fit  for  a  school  to  occupy  without  thorough  repairs. 
There  is  but  one  out-building  of  any  kind  connected  with  the  school- 
houses  of  this  society,  and  this  is  entirely  unfit  for  use." — Winchester. 

"  Throughout  Middlesex  county  the  school-houses,  taken  as  a  whole,  are 
several  degrees  below  respectability — rarely  ever  painted  within  or  with- 
out, and  if  painted  at  all,  they  ever  afterward  show  a  worn  and  weather- 
beaten  coat,  like  the  half  starved,  half  clothed  outcast  of  society.  Yet 
these  houses  are  owned  by  the  public,  worth  its  tens  of  thousands,  and 
they  groan  grievously  if  a  small  tax  is  levied  to  improve  them.  Of  the 
four  locations  of  school-houses  in  this  town,  not  one  has  sufficient  land  for 
a  private  dwelling,  and  all  the  land  combined  would  be  less  than  an  acre. 
One  stands  wholly  on  the  highway ;  another  stands  on  a  bleak  and  rocky 
elevation,  and  during  some  portions  of  the  winter,  almost  inaccessible. 
This  location  was  chosen  probably  because  it  was  cheaper  than  the 
pleasant  field  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  way.  Why  should  the  public 
school-house  which  accommodates  from  thirty  to  fifty  pupils,  ten  and 
eleven  months  in  the  year,  five  and  a  half  days  of  each  week,  not  require 
as  much  land  as  a  church  or  private  dwelling?" — Chester. 

li  Our  school-houses  are  not  what  they  ought  to  be  either  in  their  loca 
tion  or  construction.  In  their  location  they  are  generally  found  upon  some 
barren  knoll,  or  too  near  the  highway,  forming  part  of  the  fence  between 
the  highway  and  the  adjoining  proprietor,  alike  destitute  of  ornament  or 
shade  calculated  to  render  them  pleasing  or  attractive.  The  desks  are 
almost  always  too  high  and  continuous,  instead  of  single,  nor  is  there 
generally  a  gradation  in  reference  to  the  size  of  the  scholar.  Few  school- 
rooms are  well  ventilated  ;  not  more  than  one  or  two  properly  or  health- 
fully warmed ;  the  consequence  is  unnecessary  frequency  of  colds,  head- 
aches and  ill  health."—  Tolland. 

The  Superintendent  (Hon.  Seth  P.  Beers)  of  Common  Schools,  thus 
introduces  the  subject  in  his  Annual  Report  for  1848. 

"  The  reports  of  school  visitors  from  every  part  of  the  state  speak  in 
strong  terms  of  condemnation  of  the  deplorable  condition  of  many  district 
school-houses.  The  progress  of  renovation  and  improvement  in  this  de- 
partment has  not  been  as  rapid  or  as  thorough,  during  the  past  year,  as  in 
other  sections  of  New  England,  or  as  the  true  interests  of  the  common 
schools  imperiously  demand.  Badly  located  school-houses  still  "encum- 
ber the  highway," — '•  without  shrub  or  shade-tree  around," — "without 


20  SCHOOL-HOUSES  AS  THEY  ARE. 

play-ground,  yard,  or  out-house,  mat  or  scraper," — without  means  of  ven- 
tilation and  uniform  temperature," — "with  seats  too  high  and  destitute 
of  support  for  the  back," — "  with  desks  attached  to  three  sides  of  the  room," 
c;  with  windows  destitute  of  glass," — "  clapboards  hanging  loose," — 
'*  blinds  propped  up  to  be  kept  in  their  places," — (:  the  wood  without  shel- 
ter," and  "  the  stove  without  a  door."  These  are  specimens  of  the  lan- 
guage used  by  school  visitors  in  describing  the  places  where  the  children 
of  Connecticut  are  receiving  their  early  training  in  taste,  manners,  morals, 
and  health, — language  which  it  is  hoped  will  touch  the  pride  of  the  dis- 
tiicts,  and  lead  to  some  efficient  action  on  the  subject." 

"  How  surprising  and  disgraceful  is  the  fact,  that  a  very  large  propor- 
tion of  the  school-houses  of  our  state  present  vastly  fewer  attractions,  in 
point  of  comfortable  arrangement  and  tastefulness,  than  are  seen  about 
our  poor-houses,  our  jails,  and  our  state  penitentiary !  This  remark  is 
too  true  of  the  school-houses  in  this  society.  They  are  all  located  directly 
on  the  road  or  in  it,  with  hardly  a  shrub  or  shade-tree  around  any  one  of 
them ;  and  with  no  play-ground  except  the  highway,  which  the  children, 
in  several  districts,  have  to  share  in  common  with  geese  arid  swine.  Of 
their  external  condition  nothing  very  creditable  or  gratifying  can  be  said. 
Six,  of  the  nine  school-houses  in  this  society,  are  wooden  ones,  and  they 
generally  bear  a  time-honored,  weather-beaten  aspect.  Unpainted  and 
blindless,  with  clapboards  agape  to  catch  the  winds  of  winter,  and  win- 
dow-panes rattling,  or  fallen  from  the  decayed  sash,  they  present  a  most 
forlorn  and  gloomy  aspect,  which,  to  say  the  least,  is  not  very  well  suited 
to  woo  the  youthful  mind,  and  fill  it  with  pleasant  fancies.  One,  unac- 
quainted with  their  original  design,  might  mistake  them  for  the  abodes 
of  the  evil  genii,  which  would  naturally  be  supposed  to  haunt  the  dreary 
solitudes  which  surround  them. 

The  internal  condition  of  these  school-houses  is  in  perfect  keeping  with 
the  external.  In  several  of  them,  the  plastering  is  broken  and  missing. 
to  say  nothing  of  the  dark  and  dingy  color  of  what  remains.  The  stoves 
are  smoky,  and  the  benches  and  desks  are  so  high  as  to  be  better  adapted 
to  the  children  of  a  race  of  giants,  than  to  those  of  the  present  generation; 
and  these  are  hacked  and  gashed  by  the  pupils,  as  if  in  retaliation  for  the 
torture  suffered  from  themT  My  compassion  has  been  deeply  moved  as  I 
have  frequently  entered  these  abodes  of  suffering,  and  seen  their  unhappy 
inmates — the  children  of  protestant  parents — doing  penance  upon  their 
high  seats,  with  no  support  to  their  backs  but  the  soft  edge  of  the  project- 
ing board  which  forms  the  desk,  and  with  their  feet  dangling  in  mid-air 
several  inches  from  the  floor.  And  when  I  have  looked  upon  these 
youthful  sufferers,  thus  seated  and  writhing  with  pain,  the  question  has 
often  arisen  in  my  mind,  what  have  these  ill-starred  children  done  that 
they  should  be  doomed  to  so  excruciating  torture  ?  What  rank  offenses 
have  they  committed  that  they  should  thus  be  suspended  between  the 
heavens  and  earth  for  six  hours  each  day  ?  And  from  deep-felt  pity  for 
the  innocent  sufferers,  I  have  sometimes  wished  (perhaps  it  was  cruel) 
that  their  parents  had  to  sit  for  one  hour  in  a  similar  position,  that  they 
might  learn  how  to  pity  their  children,  and  be  prompted  to  attend  to  their 
health  and  comfort  in  the  internal  arrangement  of  the  school-room. 

Add  to  all  this  the  fact,  so  outrageous  to  common  decency,  that  most 
of  these  school-houses  have  no  out-buildings  whatever  attached  to  them  ; 
and  does  not  the  case  appeal  movingly  to  the  friends  of  humanity,  and 
demand  prompt  and  decisive  measures  of  reform?  Is  it  not  passing 
strange,  that  while  many  parents  incur  considerable  expense  in  providing 
themselves  with  cushioned  and  carpeted  slips  in  church,  where  they  ordi- 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AS  THEY  ARE.  21 

narily  spend,  perhaps,  but  three  hours  each  week,  they  should  be  so 
utterly  regardless  of  the  comfort  and  happiness  of  their  offsprings  in  the 
school-room  V—Bloomfield. 

"  Three  of  the  houses  are  located  in  the  highway  ;  an  excellent  device 
for  saving  land,  but  a  miserable  one  for  the  comfort,  safety  and  improve- 
ment of  children.  In  selecting  sites  for  the  new  houses,  recently  erected, 
a  good  degree  of  space  fronting  was  provided  for.  Only  two  houses  have 
blinds  or  shutters ;  all  the  others  give  full  scope  for  the  sun  to  see  what  is 
going  on  in  the  school-room,  often  to  the  manifest  annoyance  of  the  chil- 
dren and  teacher;  unless,  perchance,  the  latter  has  genius  enough  to  con- 
vert a  stray  newspaper,  or  some  other  available  article,  into  a  temporary 
curtain  to  shut  him  out." — Manchester. 

"  Our  school-houses,  though  not  cold  and  leaky,  are  very  badly  con- 
structed within,  and  are  therefore  very  inconvenient.  Two  of  them  stand 
mostly  in  the  highway,  so  that  one  passing  in  a  carriage  or  on  horseback 
may  look  in  upon  the  whole  school,  and  as  a  matter  of  course  the  scholars 
will  look  at  whatever  passes.  When  the  school-house  is  so  exposed,  it 
would  seem,  that  tnodesty  in  our  children  would  require  the  convenience 
of  good  out-houses  ;  but  this  is  not  the  case  with  any  two  school-houses 
in  the  town.  We  have  urged  the  importance  of  these  things,  but  with 
poor  success." — Suffield,  2d. 

'•-  There  are  some  houses  unfit  for  their  purpose ;  the  weather-boards  are 
starting  off,  >;  and  the  wind  enjoys  quite  freely  the  luxury  of  coming  in 
and  being  warmed  by  the  fire;  and  the  dear  children  suffer  much  between 
a  cold  northwester  and  a  red-hot  stove."  It  is  very  common  to  find  the 
school-houses  mutilated  by  the  cuttings  of  obscene  figures ;  this  should 
draw  forth  the  unqualified  censure  of  proprietors  and  teachers.  Further, 
there  are  cases  where  there  are  no  out-houses  for  the  use  of  children. 
This  is  a  sore  evil,  and  ought  to  be  remedied  immediately." — Groton. 

•;  Among  the  ten  school-houses  in  this  district  are  several  very  good 
buildings ;  but.  taking  in  view  the  size  and  proportions  of  the  edifices, 
the  internal  arrangement  the  fitness  of  the  seats  and  desks  for  the  object 
designed,  we  feel  impelled  to  say,  that  in  our  opinion  there  are  no  very 
good  school-houses.  In  some  of  the  districts  it  is  said  the  people  are 
obliged  to  go  among  strangers  to  procure  teachers,  on  account  of  the 
shabbyness  of  the  school-houses." — Brooklyn. 

::  Not  more  than  one-half  of  our  school-houses  in  this  society  are  very 
good.  if.  indeed,  they  can  be  termed  more  than  comfortable.  The  remain- 
der are  bad,  some  of  them  very  bad,  exhibiting  nothing  of  comfort  or  con- 
venience. In  some  of  them,  there  are  no  desks  fit  to  be  used  for  writing 
purposes.  The  seats  are  so  constructed  as  to  afford  no  place  to  rest  the 
back,  or,  in  some  cases,  even  the  sole  of  the  foot.  Many  of  the  schools 
are  destitute  of  out-houses.  Some  of  them  have  no  conveniences  for 
hanging  up  the  hats  or  clothes  of  the  children,  or  even  to  shelter  the  wood 
from  the  weather.  And  more  than  half  our  school-houses  are  destitute 
of  black-boards,  a  fact  alike  discreditable  to  the  district  and  to  the  teach- 
ers who  have  served  in  them." — Stafford,  1st. 

i:  It  appears  from  the  superintendent's  report  for  1847,  that  of  1663 
school-houses  in  the  state.  873  have  out-houses,  and  745  have  none! 
This  fact  is,  undoubtedly,  a  burning  shame  and  a  deep  disgrace  to  the 
state.  It  is  unworthy  of  a  civilizeH  country,  and  indicates  a  state  of  things 
that  ought  to  exist  only  among  savages.  The  committee  are  happy  to 
say  that  we  have  little  or  no  share  in  this  shameful  fact :  but  our  school- 
houses  are  by  no  means  what  they  should  be,  and  call  for  improvement. 


22  SCHOOL-HOUSES  AS  THEY  ARE. 

They  are  generally  on  or  in  the  street  whereas  every  building  devoted  to 
such  a  purpose  ought  to  be  in  a  retired  situation,  with  suitable  yards  for 
play-grounds,  and  convenient  fixtures.  The  windows  in  some  do  not  let 
down  from  the  top,  and  therefore  are  not  properly  ventilated.  In  only 
two  out  of  eight  school-houses  are  the  benches  what  they  should  be. 
Large  desks  running  around  the  room  for  the  older  scholars  ought  to  be 
wholly  discarded  as  intolerable  nuisances.  The  scholars  are  of  necessity 
always  looking  into  the  street;  the  windows  can  be  opened  only  by  climb- 
ing over  the  benches  and  desks.  The  scholars'  backs  are  turned  toward 
the  teacher ;  they  sit  close  together,  and  of  course  are  often  whispering. 
Large  girls  can  leave  their  seats  only  by  placing  their  feet  on  a  level  with 
their  hips,  which  it  is  not  always  best  that  females  should  do.  The 
smaller  benches  often  have  backs  that  are  so  low  as  to  be  of  little  service. 
Every  school-house  ought  to  be  provided  with  a  single  desk  for  each 
pupil,  and  every  pupil  ought  to  have  a  slate  and  books  to  keep  in  the 
desk." — Vernon. 

The  following  extracts  are  taken  from  the  Annual  Reports  for  1849. 

"  The  school-houses  are  not  what  they  should  be.  Some  of  them  are  de- 
cidedly bad.  They  are  neither  convenient  nor  pleasant.  The  benches 
and  desks  are  inconvenient.  Some  of  the  small  scholars  are  reduced  to 
the  miserable  necessity  of  swinging  in  the  air,  without  being  able  to  either 
get  a  foothold  or  a  place  to  rest  their  backs  against.  Ventilation  is 
not  attended  to.  Every  school-room  should  be  so  constructed  that  it  can 
be  freely  ventilated,  so  that  the  scholars  may  have  pure  atmospheric  air  to 
breathe.  This  every  one  must  appreciate,  who  knows  the  value  of 
health,  and  does  not  wish  to  see  a  generation  of  sickly  drones  coming  on 
to  the  stage.  As  a  general  thing,  the  external  appearance  of  the  school- 
houses  is  bad.  A  stranger  passing  through  a  district,  can  easily  select 
the  school-house.  If  you  see  a  very  unique-looking  building,  a  "  squatter" 
in  the  highway,  or  standing  by  permission  on  the  side  of  some  lot,  in  a 
corner  rendered  useless  by  a  location  on  the  border  of  some  swampy 
moor,  or  on  some  arid  field,  where  no  vestige  of  life  is — that  you  may 
conclude  is  the  district  school-house.  That  is  the  place  where  our  chil- 
dren are  to  resort,  during  three-fourths  of  the  first  sixteen  years  of  their 
lives,  to  get  an  education.  Such  are  the  associations  with  their  early, 
perhaps  all  their  education !  Why  is  not  the  district  school  the  place 
where  correct  taste  should  be  demonstrated?  Impressions  will  be  made, 
and  if  they  ever  yield  to  good  taste,  school-house  associations,  in  their 
present  state,  will  not  deserve  the  credit." — Enfield. 

<;  Our  school-houses  are  in  a  bad  condition.  Look  into  the  school  some 
warm,  comfortable  day,  when  the  children  are  more  likely  to  be  in  at- 
tendance, and  if  you  please,  walk  in  and  breathe  a  specimen  of  the  air  in 
a  New  England  unventilated  school-house.  If  you  are  a  well-bred  man, 
you  must  do  violence  to  your  kind  feelings,  when  you  take  a  seat  and 
look  around  and  find  that  the  teacher  has  nothing  left  for  his  accommo- 
dation but  a  standee ;  our  school-houses  are  literally  jammed  full,  i.  e. 
the  seats — any  attempt  at  improvement  is  voted  down  on  account  of  the 
cost."— South  Windsor^  Wapping. 

"  One  district,  for  a  wonder,  occupied  a  new  school-house ;  but  while  it  is 
excellent,  compared  with  the  old  one,  it  is  contemptible,  if  not  wicked. 
compared  with  what  it  ought  to  be.  The  only  plan  about  it  seems  to  be^ 
the  minimum  scale  of  expenditure.  Its^iimensions  are  too  limited  even 
for  so  small  a  school.  The  desk  or  counter  is  uniform,  and  attached  to 
three  sides  of  the  room,  and  almost  out  of  the  tallest  scholar's  reach  !  I 
have  protested  to  the  district,  and  possibly  they  will  lower  the  counter, 


SCHOOI>-nO0SES  AS  THEY  ARE.  23 

<tome  time  or  other.     The  other  districts  need  new  school-rooms,  and  some 
ialk  of  building."—  Wolcott. 

:t  In  regard  to  the  school-houses  in  our  five  districts,  only  one  can  be  said 
to  be  very  good.  Another,  recently  repaired,  may  be  called  good  in  a 
qualified  sense;  while  the  remaining  three  are  quite  ordinary,  if  not  bad. 
This  neglect  to  provide  neat  and  comfortable  school-houses,  doubtless 
has  a  tendency  to  dampen  the  ardor  of  children  in  literary  pursuits,  and 
in  various  ways  to  retard  their  progress." — Plainfield. 

-The  school-room  in  the  third  district  presents  the  same  unsightly  ap- 
pearance which  it  has  in  years  past ;  and  from  the  height  to  which  the 
writing1  desks,  and  slabs  used  for  seats,  are  elevated,  some  persons  would 
naturally  infer  that  they  were  originally  designed  for  a  race  of  giants." — 

Pomfref.  Abington. 

•"•  Most  of  the  school-houses  are  in  a  bad  condition,  being  old,  ill-construct- 
ed, and  inconvenient.  Especially  is  this  the  case  with  regard  to  the  inte- 
rior of  some  of  them,  the  seats  of  which  are  too  high  for  the  comfort  of 
the  scholars,  with  nothing  to  rest  the  back  against,  except  the  sharp  edge 
of  a  plank  or  board,  which  serves  as  a  writing  desk,  and  this  placed  so 
high  as  to  bring  the  arm  to  an  unnatural  and  uneasy  position  when  at- 
tempting to  write.  The  school-houses,  too.  with  one  or  two  exceptions, 
stand  in  the  highway,  many  within  a  few  feet  of  the  traveled  path,  with 
windows  looking  directly  upon  it,  so  that  the  attention  of  the  scholar  is 
necessarily  attracted  to  every  passer-by,  thus  diverting  his  attention  from 
his  studies,  retarding  his  progress,  and  annoying  his  teacher." — Litchfeld, 
Milton. 

The  Annual  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Common  Schools  for  1850 
contains  the  following  remarks  on  the  condition  of  the  school-houses. 

c:  If  any  reliance  can  be  placed  on  the  representations  made  by  teachers 
and  school  visitors  from  two  hundred  and  four  out  of  the  two  hundred  and 
seventeen  school  societies  in  the  state,  as  collected  from  written  commu- 
nications to  this  department  in  the  course  ofthe  last  four  years,  a  majority 
of  our  school-houses  are  badly  located,  badly  ventilated,  imperfectly  warm- 
ed in  winter,  having  uncomfortable  seats  and  desks,  without  apparatus 
except  a  black-board,  and  destitute  of  the  most  ordinary  means  of  cleanli- 
ness and  convenience.  To  this  overwhelming  mass  of  testimony  (Appen- 
dix G)  as  to  the  necessity  of  immediate  and  thorough  improvement  in 
this  portion  of  the  educational  field.  I  will  here  add  an  extract  from  a 
communication  by  a  teacher  of  much  experience  and  distinction,  who  re- 
ceived his  education  and  commenced  his  experience  in  teaching  in  the 
district  schools  of  this  state.  His  remarks  refer  to  the  condition  of  school- 
houses  in  a  single  county — to  three-fourths  of  which  he  had  just  made  a 
personal  visit." 

"  OLD  SCHOOL-HOUSES. — These  are  the  Antiquities  of  Connecticut,  rude 
monuments  of  art,  that  must  have  had  their  origin  coeval  with  the  pyra- 
mids and  catacombs,  for  aught  we  can  learn  to  the  contrary,  save  by  the 
uncertain  information  of  tradition.  "  It  always  stood  there,"  says  ;;  the 
oldest,  inhabitant,"  when  asked  the  date  of  the  erection  of  one  of  them. 
Little  brown  structures  of  peculiar  aspect,  meek,  demure,  burrowing  in 
some  lone,  damp  and  depressed  spot,  or  perchance  perched  on  the  pinna- 
cle of  a  rock,  as  if  too  contemptible  and  abject  to  occupy  a  choice  piece  of 
earth. — exposed  to  the  remorseless  winds  of  winter,  and  the  fervid  rays  of 


24  SCHOOL-HOUSES  AS  THEY  ARE. 

summer,— at  one  end  a  narrow  and  dingy  entry,  the  floor  covered  with 
wood,  chips,  stones,  hats,  caps,  odd  mittens,  old  books,  bonnets,  shawls, 
cloaks,  dirt,  dinner  baskets,  old  brooms,  ashes,  &c.,  all  thrown  together  in 
the  order  as  here  catalogued, — the  principal  room  retaining  its  huge  stone 
chimney,  which  for  generations  boasted  its  ghastly  fire-place,  affording  a 
ready  oblivion  to  annual  piles  of  green  and  snow-soaked  wood, — the  burnt, 
smoked,  scratched  and  scrawled  wainscoting, — the  battered  and  mutilated 
plastering, — the  patched  windows, — the  crippled  and  ragged  benches. — 
the  desks  which  have  endured  a  short  eternity  of  whittling, — the  masses 
of  pulverized  earth  in  constant  agitation,  filling  the  throat,  eye  and  nos- 
trils of  the  inmates, — the  unmistakable  compound  of  odors  which  come  not 
from  "  Araby  the  blest" — all  point  to  the  remote  antiquity  of  these  build- 
ings, and  intimate  the  veneration  in  which  they  are  held.  That  some  of 
these  structures  are  always  to  remain,  does  not  seem  to  admit  of  a  "  rea- 
sonable doubt."  The  records  of  their  origin,  as  we  have  seen,  are  gone, 
and  the  testimony  of  the  past  few  generations  is  conclusive  that  no  change 
has  been  effected  in  their  appearance  from  a  remote  period  ;  hence  the 
deduction  that  they  are  among  the  "  things  to  remain,"  and  never  to  pass 
away.  Though  the  "annual  miracle  of  nature"  may  not  be  vouchsafed 
to  preserve  them,  yet,  like  the  monuments  of  the  American  Indians  which 
receive  their  annual  votive  offering  of  stones,  and  are  thus  rendered  im- 
perishable, so  these  "  antiquities,"  receiving  their  semi-occasional  patches 
upon  windows,  upon  clapboards,  roofs  and  floors,  together  with  the  au- 
tumnal embankment  of  earth  around  their  base,  and  all  these  given  and 
received  obsequious  to  the  annual  solemn  votes  of  the  district, — stand,  de- 
spite the  advance  of  public  opinion,  the  "  war  of  elements,"  and  "the  tooth 
of  time." 

MODERN  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. — It  is  much  to  be  regretted  that  a 
work  similar  to  "  Barnard's  School  Architecture"  had  not  been  issued 
and  circulated  throughout  the  state  some  ten  years  ago,  that  such  as  have 
since  that  time  erected  new  houses,  (that  are  to  stand  forever.)  might 
have  consulted  approved  models  for  the  size  and  forms  of  their  structures, 
and  improved  plans  for  their  internal  arrangements.  It  would  seem,  how- 
ever, that  enough  had  been  said  by  the  author  of  that  work  in  his  annual 
reports,  and  occasional  addresses  in  the  state,  to  have  excited  interest  suf- 
ficient in  those  intending  to  build  new  houses,  to  extend  their  inquiries 
and  observations  beyond  the  limits  of  their  own  district,  and  beyond  the 
pattern  of  their  own  recently  condemned  school-house,  and  at  least  to 
select  suitable  locations  for  houses  and  necessary  out-buildings,  if  not  for 
a  yard  and  play-ground. 

The  material  changes  observed  in  the  construction  of  new  houses  about 
the  county,  consist  in  placing  the  end  of  the  building  toward  the  street 
instead  of  the  side,  and  giving  a  very  narrow  entry  across  the  end  of  the 
building, — affording,  in  some  instances,  two  entrances  into  the  school- 
room, with  only  one  into  the  entry.  A  portion  of  the  entry  is  used  for 
wood,  which  being  thrown  against  the  plastering,  lavs  bare  the  lathing, 
making  the  building,  while  yet  new,  bear  the  tokens  of  age.  In  a  few  in- 
stances only  have  two  outside  doors  been  observed,  giving  separate  en- 
trances to  boys  and  girls. 

In  most  instances  where  the  building  is  not  erected  on  the  line  of  the 
highway,  it  is  placed  only  so  far  back  as  to  allow  a  straggling  wood  pile 
just  outside  the  traveled  path.  An  instance  is  not  now  remembered 
where  the  generosity  of  the  district  has  given  a  play-ground  to  the  school, 
aside  from  the  public  common  or  the  traveled  highway. 

The  internal  arrangements  of  the  new  houses  are,  in  many  instances. 
exactly  like  those  of  their  immediate  predecessors,  save  that  in  all  cases 
it  is  believed  the  old  movable  slab  benches,  are  superseded  by  perma- 


SCHOOL  HOUSES  AS  THEY  ARE.  25 

nent  benches  with  backs.  The  windows,  in  all  cases  perhaps,  in  the  new 
houses,  have  made  a  sensible  step  downward  toward  the  floor;  and  the 
desks  and  seats  of  the  larger  scholars,  have  also  been  brought  down  from 
their  inconvenient  and  dizzy  heights,  that  their  occupants  may  not  be 
"  while  in,  above  the  world." 

Where  change  has  been  wrought  in  the  fixtures  of  the  room,  the  desks 
are  almost  always  clumsy,  occupying  unnecessary  portions  of  the  room, 
and  rendering  them  inconvenient  lor  the  evolutions  of  the  school. 

Ventilation  has  received  a  passing  thought  in  the  erection  of  most  of 
the  new  houses,  yet  its  importance  is  not  probably  fully  appreciated,  nor 
the  best  methods  of  securing  it  clearly  understood.  Some  ventilate  from 
the  windows  so  successfully,  as  to  part  with  the  warm  air  almost  entirely, 
and  at  the  same  time  to  retain  the  offensive  gases  and  odors  of  the  room. 
Some  ventilators  are  placed  in  the  ceiling  in  the  corners  of  the  rooms, 
others  are  placed  immediately  over  the  stove  pipe, — some  are  movable, 
and  moved  with  a  cord, — others  are  simply  a  scuttle,  expected  to  rise  by 
the  expansive  power  of  the  gases,  as  safety  valves  of  engines  operate  by 
accumulation  of  steam. 

The  substitution  of  stoves  (mainly  box  stoves.)  for  the  engulphing  fire 
place,  as  a  means  of  warming  school-rooms,  is  noticed  in  the  new  houses. 

OF  SCHOOL-HOUSES  GENERALLY. — To  ascertain  if  improvement  has 
been  effected  in  this  class  of  structures  in  the  state,  we  must  resort  to  one 
or  two  devices  of  the  astronomer,  in  observing  the  motions  of  the  heavenly 
bodies,  viz.,  to  notice  their  respective  positions  at  different  and  remote 
periods  of  time.  The  progress  of  improvement  has  been  so  slow,  (if  im- 
provement has  been  made  in  school-houses.)  that  an  observer  from  year 
to  year  only,  might  be  at  a  loss  to  know  that  such  was  the  fact ;  but  a 
comparison  of  the  structures  fifteen  or  twenty  years  ago,  with  the  build- 
ings now  occupied  for  schools,  will  doubtless  enable  one  to  say  that  pro- 
gress has  been  made.  It  is  stated  on  very  creditable  authority  that  in 
some  societies  and  some,  towns,  one,  and  in  some  instances,  more  than  one 
house  has  been  built,  and  one  or  more  has  been  painted. 

The  contributions  upon  old  hats,  upon  writing  books  that  are  "  writ 
through,"  &c.,  &c.,  are  levied  less  frequently  than  formerly  to  repel  the 
winds  at  the  windows ;  fewer  clapboards  are  now  seen  swinging  gaily  by 
a  single  nail,  than  in  bye-gone  days ;  the  asthmatic  wheezing  of  the 
winds  through  the  uncounted  apertures  is  hushed,  and  the  pupils  enjoy 
an  irrigation  through  the  roof  less  frequently  than  formerly.  Curtains 
are  occasionally  found  to  protect  the  eyes  of  the  pupils  from  the  blinding 
rays  of  the  sun  ;  the  comfort  of  the  smaller  children  is  materially  increas- 
ed by  the  addition  of  backs  to  their  hard  seats;  the  desks  and  seats  of  the 
larger  pupils  have  descended  toward  the  floor;  the  use  of  stoves  giving 
a  comfortable  temperature  to  the  rooms,  instead  of  the  former  equatorial 
heat  and  the  polar  cold ;  in  rare  instances  the  ingenious  designs  in  chalk 
and  charcoal  upon  the  walls  and  ceiling  have  retired  behind  a  coating  of 
whitewash,  and  the  yawning  fire-place  has  been  plastered  over.  All 
these  movements  distinctly  indicate  that  vitality  at  least  exists  among  the 
people  of  this  commonwealth,  and  that  the  best  good  of  their  children,  as 
they  tell  ns,  lies  nearest  their  Jiearts. 

It  is  earnestly  hoped  that  all  persons  will  be  open  to  conviction  and 
receive  the  above  statement  of  facts  as  a  perfect  demonstration  of  the 
earnestness  of  the  community  for  the  well  being  of  the  schools. 

When  we  come  to  the  et  ceteras  of  the  school-rooms,  such  as  shovel 
and  tongs,  brooms,  brushes,  bells,  globes,  sinks,  wash-basins,  towels,  pegs, 
hooks  and  shelves  for  hats,  clothing,  &c.,  it  is  feared  such  great,  such  mo- 
mentous changes,  such  rapid  advances,  will  not  appear  to  have  been 
made  ;  probably  not  three  districts  in  the  county  have  gone  so  fast,  or  so 


26  SCHOOL-HOUSES  AS  THEY  ARE. 

far  in  advance  of  the  others  as  to  have  procured  all  these  articles  ;  proba 
bly  not  more  than  half  a  dozen  districts  have  supposed  it  important,  that 
even  a  mat  and  scraper  are  necessary  for  pupils  to  use  after  walking,  per- 
haps a  mile  in  the  mud ;  yet  we  should  be  doing  them  injustice  in  not 
supposing  that  they  really  feel  this  quenchless  interest  which  they  repre- 
sent themselves  as  possessing  for  their  children,  and  should  greatly  mis- 
judge them  if  we  supposed  them  not  doing  all  in  their  power  to  encourage 
their  children  in  obtaining  useful  knowledge,  and  in  cultivating  the  minor 
virtues  while  in  school. 

OOT-BUILDINGS. — An  appalling  chapter  might  be  written,  on  the  evils, 
the  almost  inevitable  results  of  neglecting  to  provide  these  indispensable 
appendages  to  school-houses  in  our  state.  Who  can  duly  estimate  the 
final  consequences  of  the  first  shock  given  to  female  delicacy,  from  the 
necessary  exposure,  to  which  the  girls  in  the  public  schools  are  inevitably 
subjected  ;  and  what  must  be  the  legitimate  results  of  these  frequent  ex- 
posures during  the  school-going  years  of  youth?  What  quenchless  fires 
of  passion  have  been  kindled  within  the  bosom  of  the  young  of  both  sexes 
by  these  exposures,  fires  that  have  raged  to  the  consuming  of  personal 
happiness,  to  the  prevention  of  scholastic  improvement,  and  to  the  de- 
struction of  personal  character  ?  again,  what  disgust  has  been  created  in 
both  sexes  by  the  results  of  not  having  the  appropriate  retirements  which 
nature  imperiously  demands?  and  finally,  may  not  the  disinclination,  the 
aversion  of  large  numbers  of  families,  of  mothers  especially,  to  sending 
their  daughters  to  the  public  schools,  have  been  created  by  the  sufferings 
they  themselves  have  endured,  from  the  above  cause ;  and  an  unwillinsr- 
ness  to  subject  the  delicacy  of  their  daughters  to  the  obnoxious  trial? 
Were  the  question  not  so  peculiar  as  almost  to  defy  examination,  it  is 
apprehended  this  would  be  found  to  be  the  truth.  Will  it  not  seem  in- 
credible, even  to  Connecticut  men,  to  be  informed  that  less  than  one-halt 
of  the  school-houses  in  this  commonwealth  are  without  these  necessary 
buildings?  yet  such  is  probably  the  fact;  thus  dooming  thousands  of  girls 
to  bear  a  loathsome  burden  of  mortification,  which  they  cannot  remove 
without  withdrawing  from  the  schools.  I  have  no  exact  data  for  the 
above  estimate,  yet  it  is  probably  not  far  below  the  truth,  if  indeed  it  is  at 
all.  So  filthy  are  most  of  those  that  are  provided,  that  they  are  not  only 
quite  useless,  but  disgusting  in  the  extreme.  In  one  society  of  nine 
schools  but  one  out-house  was  provided,  and  that,  I  was  informed,  could 
only  be  reached  in  dry  weather,  such  was  its  location  ;  nor  could  it  be 
used  even  then,  such  was  its  condition.  This  state  of  things,  it  would 
seem,  should  be  utterly  changed,  and  that  speedily." 

MASSACHUSETTS. 

EXTRACTS  from  the  "Report  of  the  Secretary  (Hon.  Horace  Mann)  of 

the  Board  of  Education  for  1846." 

"For  years  the  condition  of  this  class  of  edifices,  throughout  the  State, 
taken  as  a  whole,  had  been  growing  worse  and  worse.  Time  and  decay 
were  always  doing  their  work,  while  only  here  and  there,  with  wide 
spaces  between,  was  any  notice  taken  of  their  silent  ravages ;  and,  in 
still  fewer  instances,  were  these  ravages  repaired.  Hence,  notwith- 
standing the  improved  condition  of  all  other  classes  of  buildings,  general 
dilapidation  was  _  the  fate  of  these.  Industry  and  the  increasing  pecu- 
niary ability  which  it  creates,  had  given  comfort,  neatness,  and  even 
elegance  to  private  dwellings.  Public  spirit  had  erected  commodious 
and  costly  churches.  Counties,  though  largely  taxed,  had  yet  uncom- 
plainingly paid  for  handsome  and  spacious  court-houses  and  public  offices. 


SCHOOL  HOUSES  AS  THEY  ARE  27 

In  1837,  not  one  third  part  of  the  Public  School-houses  in  Massachu- 
setts would  have  been  considered  tenantable  by  any  decent  family,  out 
of  the  poor-house,  or  in  it.  As  an  incentive  to  neatness  and  decency, 
children  were  sent  to  a  house  whose  walls  and  floors  were  indeed  painted, 
but  they  were  painted,  all  too  thickly,  by  smoke  and  filth ;  whose  benches 
and  doors  were  covered  with  carved  work,  but  they  were  the  gross  and 
obscene  carvings  of  impure  hands;  whose  vestibule,  after  the  oriental 
fashion,  was  converted  into  a  veranda,  but  the  metamorphosis  which 
changed  its  architectural  style,  consisted  in  laying  it  bare  of  its  outer 
covering.  The  modesty  and  chastity  of  the  sexes,  at  their  tenderest  age, 
was  to  be  cultivated  and  cherished,  in  places,  which  oftentimes  wrere  as 
destitute  of  all  suitable  accommodations,  as  a  camp  or  a  caravan.  The 
brain  was  to  be  worked  amid  gases  that  stupefied  it  The  virtues  of 
generosity  and  forbearance  were  to  be  acquired  where  sharp  discomfort 
and  pain  tempted  each  one  to  seize  more  than  his  own  share  of  relief, 
and  thus  to  strengthen  every  selfish  propensity. 

At  the  time  referred  to,  the  school-houses  in  Massachusetts  were  an 
opprobrium  to  the  State;  and  if  there  be  any  one  who  thinks  this 
expression  too  strong,  he  may  satisfy  himself  of  its  correctness  by 
inspecting  some  of  the  few  specimens  of  them  which  still  remain. 

The  earliest  effort  at  reform  was  directed  towards  this  class  of  build- 
ings. By  presenting  the  idea  of  taxation,  this  measure  encountered  the 
opposition  of  one  of  the  strongest  passions  of  the  age.  Not  only  the 
sordid  and  avaricious,  but  even  those,  whose  virtue  of  frugality,  by  the 
force  of  habit,  had  been  imperceptibly  sliding  into  the  vice  of  parsimony, 
felt  the  alarm.  Men  of  fortune,  without  children,  and  men  who  had 
reared  a  family  of  children,  and  borne  the  expenses  of  their  education, 
fancied  they  saw  something  of  injustice  in  being  called  to  pay  for  the 
education  of  others ;  and  too  often  their  fancies  started  up  into  spectres 
of  all  imaginable  oppression  and  wrong.  The  school  districts  were  the 
scene  where  the  contending  parties  arrayed  themselves  against  each 
other;  the  school-house  itself  their  arena.  From  time  immemorial,  it 
had  been  the  custom  to  hold  school  district  meetings  in  the  school-house. 
Hither,  according  to  ancient  usage,  the  voters  were  summoned  to  come. 
In  this  forum,  the  question  was  to  be  decided,  whether  a  new  edifice 
should  be  erected,  or  whether  the  ability  of  the  old  one  to  stand  upon  its 
foundations  for  another  season,  should  be  tried.  Regard  for  the  health, 
the  decent  manners,  the  intellectual  progress  and  the  moral  welfare  of  the 
children,  common  humanity,  policy,  duty,  the  highest  worldly  interests  of 
the  race,  were  marshalled  on  one  side,  demanding  a  change ;  selfishness, 
cupidity,  insensibility  to  the  wants  and  the  welfare  of  others,  and  that 
fallacious  plea,  that  because  the  school-house  had  answered  the  purpose 
so  long,  therefore  it  would  continue  to  answer  it  still  longer, — an  argument 
which  would  make  all  houses,  and  roads,  and  garments,  and  every  tiling 
made  by  human  hands,  last  forever, — resisted  the  change.  The  dis- 
graceful contrast  between  the  school-house  and  all  other  edifices,  whether 
public  or  private,  in  its  vicinity ;  the  immense  physical  and  spiritual  sacri- 
fices which  its  condition  inflicted  upon  the  rising  generation,  were  often 
and  unavailingly  urged ;  but  there  was  always  one  argument  which  the 
advocates  for  reform  could  use  with  irresistible  effect, — the  school-house 
itself.  Cold  winds,  whistling  through  crannies  and  chinks  and  broken 
windows,  told  with  merciless  effect  upon  the  opponents.  The  ardor  of 
opposition  was  cooled  by  snow-blasts  rushing  up  through  the  floor.  Pain- 
imparting  seats  made  it  impossible  for  the  objectors  to  listen  patiently 
even  to  arguments  on  their  own  side ;  and  it  was  obvious  that  the  tears 
they  shed  were  less  attributable  to  any  wrongs  which  they  feared,  than 
to  the  volumes  of  smoke  which  belched  out  with  every  gust  of  wind  from 


28  SCHOOL-HOUSES  AS  THEY  ARE 

broken  funnels  and  chimneys.  Such  was  the  case  in  some  houses.  In 
others,  opposite  evils  prevailed ;  and  the  heat  and  stifling  air  and  nau- 
seating effluvia  were  such  as  a  grown  man  has  hardly  been  compelled  to 
live  in,  since  the  time  of  Jonah. 

Though  insensible  to  arguments  addressed  to  reason  and  conscience 
yet  the  senses  and  muscles  and  nerves  of  this  class  of  men  were 
hardened  than  their  hearts ;  and  the  colds  arid  cramps,  the  exhaustion 
debility,  which  they  carried  home,  worked  mightily  for  their  conversion  to 
truth.     Under  such  circumstances,  persuasion  became  compulsory. 

Could  the  leaders  of  the  opposition  have  transferred  Mie  debate  to  some 
commodious  public  hall,  or  to  their  own  spacious  and  elegant  mansions, 
they  might  have  bid  defiance  to  humanity  and  remained  masters  of  the 
field.  But  the  party  of  reform  held  them  relentlessly  to  the  battle-ground; 
and  there  the  cause  of  progress  triumphed,  on  the  very  spot  where  it  had 
been  so  long  dishonored. 

During  the  five  years  immediately  succeeding  the  report  made  by  the 
Board  of  Education  to  the  Legislature,  on  the  subject  of  school-houses, 
the  sums  expended  for  the  erection  or  repair  of  this  class  of  buildings  fell 
but  little  short  of  seven  hundred  thousand  dollars.  Since  that  time,  from 
the  best  information  obtained,  I  suppose  the  sum  expended  on  this  one 
item  to  be  about  one  hundred  and  Jiffy  thousand  dollars  annually. 
Every  year  adds  some  new  improvement  to  the  construction  and  arrange- 
ment of  these  edifices. 

In  regard  to  this  great  change  in  school-houses, — it  would  hardly  be  too 
much  to  call  it  a  revolution, — the  school  committees  have  done  an  excel- 
lent work, — or  rather,  they  have  begun  it; — it  is  not  yet  done.  Their 
annual  reports,  read  in  open  town  meeting,  or  printed  and  circulated 
among  the  inhabitants,  afterwards  embodied  in  the  Abstracts  and  distri- 
buted to  all  the  members  of  the  government,  to  all  towns  and  school  com- 
mittees have  enlightened  and  convinced  a  State. 

Notwithstanding  the  great  revolution  actually  wrought  in  the  condi- 
tion of  school-houses  in  certain  villages  and  cities  of  Massachusetts,  the 
following  picture  of  these  buildings  in  the  rural  towns  is  drawn  by  Mr. 
Leach,  one  of  the  agents  of  the  Board  of  Education,  in  1853: 

Since  the  commencement  of  my  agency,  I  have  examined  more  than  one  thous- 
and school-houses,  and  have  noticed  the  following  defects  in  their  location  and 
construction.  I  have  found  very  many  school-houses  situated  in  the  highways, 
but  a  few  feet  from  the  traveled  road,  and  without  any  yard  for  the  scholars  to 
play  in.  Some  I  have  found  in  wet  and  marshy  places,  which  were  often  sur- 
rounded by  standing  water.  Some  were  quite  near  ponds  or  streams,  which  was 
the  cause  of  very  great  annoyance,  both  in  summer  and  winter.  Some  were  near 
stores  and  public  places  of  resort,  which  were  frequently  visited  during  the  inter- 
mission. Some  were  near  workshops,  or  manufactories,  or  railroads,  or  depots, 
exposing  the  children  to  interruption  and  accidents.  Some  were  on  eminences, 
surrounded  by  dangerous  declivities.  Not  one  in  fifty  have  I  found  with  suitable 
backyards,  well-fenced,  and  with  decent  water  closets.  But  very  few  have  two 
entrances,  one  for  each  sex.  In  consequence  of  this  arrangement,  teachers  are 
compelled  to  sacrifice  thirty  minutes  each  day,  one-twelfth  of  the  whole  school 
time,  or  commit  the  gross  impropriety  of  sending  out  boys  and  girls  into  the  same 
yard  at  the  same  time.  Very  few  houses  are  constructed  with  any  regard  to  ex- 
ternal beauty  or  internal  convenience.  Many  are  quite  too  small,  not  affording, 
in  some  instances,  more  than  forty  or  fifty  cubic  feet  to  each  pupil,  instead  of  one 
hundred  and  fifty,  which  is  regarded  as  the  minimum.  Very  many  are  not  more 
than  eight  feet  in  height,  instead  of  eleven  or  twelve  feet.  A  very  common  and 
serious  defect  is  the  want  of  good  blackboards,  placed  at  the  proper  height.  In 
very  many  cases,  instead  of  a  blackboard  in  the  rear  of  the  teacher's  desk,  there 
is  a  window  to  admit  light  directly  in  the  face  of  the  pupils.  In  many  houses  of 
recent  construction  there  are  no  blackboards,  except  in  the  rear  of  the  pupils,  so 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AS  THEY  ARE.  29 

that  they  were  obliged  to  stand  or  sit  on  the  top  of  the  desks  to  witness  any  illus- 
tration from  the  teacher.  Where  .such  arrangements  existed,  I  found  that  but 
very  little  use  was  made  of  the  blackboard  by  the  teacher.  Very  many  schools  1 
have  found  badly  lighted,  some  admitting  too  much  light,  and  others  too  little,  and 
quite  often  the  light  was  admitted  directly  in  the  faces  of  the  pupils.  In  conse- 
ueuce  of  too  little  light,  the  pupils  become  short-sighted,  and  contract  a  stoop- 
ig  posture  by  bringing  the  head  near  the  book.  The  cases  are  quite  numerous 
where  pupils  have  become  short-sighted  and  round-shouldered,  by  being  com- 
pelled to  study  in  an  improper  posture.  By  an  excess  of  light,  the  sight  of  pupils 
has  been  very  much  impaired,  and,  in  some  cases,  entirely  lost. 

In  a  large  majority  of  cases,  the  stairs  leading  to  the  upper  rooms  have  been 
badly  constructed,  endangering  the  lives  and  limbs  of  pupils.  Very  many  cases 
of  serious  injury  I  have  found,  which  have  resulted  from  this  cause.  But  very 
few  houses  are  furnished  with  large  closets,  or  book-cases,  to  preserve  maps, 
globes,  and  books  of  reference.  But  few  are  provided  with  a  well,  pump,  and 
sink,  a  very  necessary  appendage  to  every  good  school.  In  but  few  instances 
have  there  been  any  attempts  to  beautify  the  grounds,  by  setting  out  trees,  shrub- 
bery, eV'c.  Globes,  clocks,  thermometers,  mats  and  scrapers,  have  not  been  in- 
troduced extensively  into  the  countiy  schools.  In  school  districts  in  the  country, 
when  the  pupils  live  some  distance  from  the  school,  there  is  seldom  any  provision 
for  the  pupils  who  wish  to  stop  at  noon,  or  who  come  in  the  morning  before  the 
time  of  commencing  the  school.  Many  houses  have  been  built,  and  some  re- 
cently, with  large  rooms,  containing  from  one  hundred  to  two  hundred  pupils 
each.  I  have  made  it  a  particular  point  of  inquiry  to  ascertain  the  advantages 
and  disadvantages  of  large  rooms,  as  compared  with  small  ojies.  I  have  con- 
sulted more  than  one  hundred  experienced  teachers  on  this  subject,  and  have 
found  but  four  or  five  who  do  not  much  prefer  small  rooms  to  large  ones. 

In  all  my  examination,  I  have  found  but  few  houses  well  ventilated.  In  a  large 
majority  of  cases,  there  are  no  means  of  ventilating  but  by  opening  the  windows 
and  doors.  And  where  attempts  have  been  made,  it  has  been  but  imperfectly 
accomplished.  The  ventilating  tubes  have  almost  invariably  been  too  small. 


EXTRACTS/TO???,  the  '••Annual  Report  of  the  Superintendent  (Hon.  Samuel 
Young-)  of  Common  Schools,  made  to 


NEW-YORK. 

Report  of  the  S  _ 
P.O-)"  of  Common  Schools,  made  to  the  Legislature.^  January  13. 

1844." 

-The  whole  number  of  school-houses  visited  and  inspected  by  the 
county  superintendents  during  the  year  was  9,368 :  of  which  7,685  were  of 
framed  wood ;  446  of  brick ;  523  of  stone,  and  707  of  logs.  Of  these. 
3.160  were  found  in  good  repair;  2.870  in  ordinary  and  comfortable  repair, 
and  3.319  in  bad  repair,  or  totally  unfit  for  school  purposes.  The  number 
furnished  with  more  than  one  room  was  544,  leaving  8,795  with  one  room 
only.  The  number  furnished  with  suitable  play-grounds  is  1,541;  the 
number  not  so  furnished,  7,313.  The  number  furnished  with  a  single 
privy  is.  1.810 ;  those  with  privies  containing  separate  apartments  for  male 
and  female  pupils.  1,012 ;  while  the  number  of  those  not  furnished  with 
any  privy  whatever,  is  6.423.  The  number  suitably  furnished  with  con- 
venient seats,  desks.  &c.,  is  reported  at  3,282,  and  the  number  not  so  fur- 
nished, at  5.972.  The  number  furnished  with  proper  facilities  for  ventila- 
tion is  stated  at  1.518 ;  while  the  number  not  provided  with  these  essen- 
tial requisites  of  health  and  comfort  is  7,889. 

No  subject  connected  with  the  interests  of  elementary  instruction 
affords  a  source  of  such  mortifying  and  humiliating  reflections  as  that  of 
the  condition  of  a  large  portion  of  the  school-houses,  as  presented  in  the 
above  enumeration.  One-third  only  of  the  whole  number  visited,  were 
found  in  goou.  repair ;.  another  third  m  ordinary  and  comfortable  condition 


30  SCHOOL-HOUSES  AS  THEY  ARE. 

only  in  this  respect — in  other  words,  barely  sufficient  for  the  convenience 
and  accommodation  of  the  teachers  and  pupils ;  while  the  remainder,  con- 
sisting of  3.319,  were  to  all  intents  arid  purposes  unfit  for  the  reception  of 
man  or  beast. 

But  544  out  of  9,368  houses  visited,  contained  more  than  one  room ; 
7,313  were  destitute  of  any  suitable  play-ground;  nearly  six  thousand 
were  unfurnished  with  convenient  seats  and  desks ;  nearly  eight  thousand 
destitute  of  the  proper  facilities  for  ventilation ;  and  upwards  of  six  thou- 
sand without  a  privy  of  any  sort ;  while  of  the  remainder  but  about  one 
thousand  were  pro/ided  with  privies  containing  different  apartments  for 
male  and  female  pupils !  And  it  is  in  these  miserable  abodes  of  accumu- 
lated dirt  and  filth,  deprived  of  wholesome  air,  or  exposed  without  adequate 
protection  to  the  assaults  of  the  elements,  with  no  facilities  for  necessary 
exercise  or  relaxation,  no  convenience  for  prosecuting  their  studies; 
crowded  together  on  benches  not  admitting  of  a  moment's  rest  in  any 
position,  and  debarred  the  possibility  of  yielding  to  the  ordinary  calls  of 
nature  without  violent  inroads  upon  modesty  and  shame ;  that  upwards 
of  two  hundred  thousand  children,  scattered  over  various  parts  of  the 
State,  are  compelled  to  spend  an  average  period  of  eight  months  during 
each  year  of  their  pupilage !  Here  the  first  lessons  of  human  life,  the 
incipient  principles  of  morality,  and  the  rules  of  social  intercourse  are  to 
be  impressed  upon  the  plastic  mind.  The  boy  is  here  to  receive  the 
model  of  his  permanent  character,  and  to  imbibe  the  elements  of  his 
future  career;  and  here  the  instinctive  delicacy  of  the  young  female, one 
of  the  characteristic  ornaments  of  the  sex,  is  to  be  expanded  into  matu- 
rity by  precept  and  example !  Is  it  strange,  under  such  circumstances, 
that  an  early  and  invincible  repugnance  to  the  acquisition  of  knowledge 
is  imbibed  by  the  youthful  mind ;  that  the  school-house  is  regarded  with 
unconcealed  aversion  and  disgust,  and  that  parents  who  have  ttr.y  desire 
to  preserve  the  health  and  the  morals  of  their  children,  exclude  them 
from  the  district  school,  and  provide  instruction  for  them  elsewhere  ? 

If  legislation  could  reach  and  remedy  the  evil,  the  law-making  power 
would  be  earnestly  invoked.  But  where  the  ordinary  mandates  of 
humanity,  and  the  laws  of  parental  feeling  written  by  the  finger  of 
heaven  on  the  human  heart,  are  obliterated  or  powerless,  all  statutory 
provisions  would  be  idle  and  vain.  In  some  instances  during  the  past 
year,  comfortable  school-houses  have  been  erected  to  supply  the  place  ot 
miserable  and  dilapidated  tenements  which  for  years  had  been  a  disgrace 
to  the  inhabitants.  Perhaps  the  contagion  of  such  worthy  examples  may 
spread ;  and  that  which  seems  to  have  been  beyond  the  influence  of  the 
ordinary  impulses  of  humanity,  may  be  accomplished  by  the  power  of 
example  or  the  dread  of  shame. 

The  expense  of  constructing  and  maintaining  convenient  buildings, 
and  all  other  proper  appliances  for  the  education  of  the  young,  is  a  mere 
trifle  when  contrasted  with  the  beneficial  results  which  inevitably  follow. 

Of  all  the  expenditures  which  are  calculated  to  subserve  the  wants  or 
gratify  the  caprices  of  man,  there  are  none  which  confer  such  important 
and  durable  blessings  as  those  which  are  applied  to  the  cultivation  and 
expansion  of  the  moral  and  intellectual  powers.  It  is  by  such  cultivation 
that  human  happiness  is  graduated,  and  that  from  the  most  debased  of 
the  savage  tribes,  nation  rises  above  nation  in  the  scale  of  prosperity  and 
civilization.  The  penuriousness  which  has  been  rranifested  on  this  sub- 
ject, and  the  reckless  profligacy  exhibited  on  others,  is  strongly  charac- 
teristic of  the  past.  In  future  times,  when  the  light  of  science  shall  be 
more  widely  diffused,  and  when  the  education  of  the  young  shall  claim 
and  receive  the  consideration  it  deserves,  a  retrospection  to  the  records  of 
the  past  will  exhibit  preceding  generations  in  no  enviable  point  of  view. 


SCHOOL  HOUSES  AS  THEY  ARE.  31 

The  following  remarks  and  extracts  from  the  Reports  of  the  special 
visiters  appointed  by  the  State  Superintendent  (Hon.  John  C.  Spencer) 
in  each  of  the  counties,  for  1840,  and  for  1841,  are  taken  from  Part  I  of 
that  admirable  work,  the  '•  School  and  the  Schoolmaster,"  Part  I,  by  Prof, 
(now  Bishop)  Potter,  and  Part  II,  by  George  B.  Emerson,  Esq..  of 
Boston. 

"  I  ask.  then,  fast,  are  our  common  schools  places  of  agreeable  resort, 
calculated  to  promote  health,  and  to  connect  pleasant  associations  with 
study'? 

Ans.  Say  the  visiters,  in  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  affluent  towns  of 
the  south-eastern  section  of  the  state,  'It  may  be  remarked,  generally 
that  the  school-houses  are  built  in  the  old  style,  are  too  small  to  be  con- 
venient, and.  with  one  exception,  too  near  the  public  roads,  generally 
iiaving  no  other  play-ground.'  Twelve  districts  were  visited  in  this 
town— See  Report  of  Visiters  (1840),  p.  47. 

Say  the  visiters  of  another  large  and  wealthy  town  in  the  central  part 
of  the  state.  '  Out  of  the  20  schools  they  visited,  10  of  the  school-houses 
were  in  bad  repair,  and  many  of  them  not  worth  repairing.     In  none 
were  any  means  provided  for  the  ventilation  of  the  room.     In  many  of 
the  districts,  the  school-rooms  are  too  small  for  the  number  of  scholars. 
The  location  of  the  school-houses  is  generally  pleasant.     There  are,  how- 
ever, but  few  instances  where  play-grounds  are  attached,  and  their  condi- 
tion as  to  privies  is  very  bad.     The  arrangement  of  seats  and  desks  is 
fenerally  very  bad,  and  inconvenient  to  both  scholars  and  teachers, 
lost  of  them  are  without  backs.'— P.  28  (/?ep.,  1840.) 

From  another  town  in  the  north-western  part  of  the  state,  containing  a 
large  population,  and  twenty-two  school  districts,  the  visiters  report  of 
district  No.  1.  that  the  school-house  is  large  and  commodious,  but  scan- 
dalously cut  and  marked ;  the  school-room  but  tolerably  clean ;  the  privies 
very  filthy,  and  no  means  of  ventilation  but  by  opening  the  door  or 
raising  the  window.  No.  2  has  an  old  school-house ;  the  room  not  clean; 
seats  and  desks  well  arranged,  but  cut  and  marked ;  no  ventilation ;  the 
children  healthy,  but  not  clean.  No.  3  has  an  old  frame  building,  but 
warm  and  comfortable.  No.  4  has  a  very  poor,  dilapidated  old  frame 
school-house,  though  the  inhabitants  are  generally  wealthy  for  that 
country.  No.  5  has  a  frame  school-house,  old  and  in  bad  condition; 
school-room  not  clean ;  seats  and  desks  not  convenient ;  No.  6  has  a  frame 
school-house,  old  and  in  bad  condition ;  the  school-room  is  not  clean ;  no 
cup  or  pail  for  drinking  water.  No.  7  has  a  log  school-house,  in  a  very 
bad  condition;  desks  and  seats  are  inconvenient.  'Here,  too,'  say  the 
visiters,  '  society  is  good,  and  people  mostly  in  easy  circumstances,  but 
the  school-house  very  unbecoming  such  inhabitants.  It  does  not  com- 
pare well  with  their  dwellings.'  No.  8.  say  the  visiters,  is  '  a  hard  case.' 
No.  9  has  a  frame  house  in  good  condition  and  in  a  pleasant  location,  but 
is  '  too  small  for  the  number  of  children.'  No.  10  has  a  log  school-house. 
No.  11  has  a  'log  shanty  for  a  school-house,  not  fit  for  any  school.'  No. 
12  a  log  house.  No.  13  has  a  log  shanty,  in  bad  condition,  not  pleasantly 
located,  school-room  not  clean.  'The  school-house  or  hovel  in  this  dis- 
trict is  so  cold  in  winter,  so  small  and  inconvenient,  that  little  can  be  done 
towards  preserving  order  or  advancing  education  among  so  many  schol- 
ars ;  some  poor  inhabitants  and  some  in  good  circumstances ;  might  have 
a  better  school-house.'  No.  14  has  a  good  frame  house,  in  good  condi- 
tion, pleasant  location,  with  ample  and  beautiful  play-ground ;  school-room 
in  clean  condition.  The  visiters  add,  '  In  this  district  the  inhabitants  are 


32  *  SCHOOL-HOUSES  AS  THEY  ARE. 

poor,  and  the  scholars  attend  irregularly;  the  house  was  built  by  one  man 
in  low  circumstances,  who  has  a  large  family  of  boys  to  educate  ;  a  noble 
act?  No.  15  has  a  frame  house,  in  a  good,  warm,  and  comfortable  con- 
dition, with  a  pleasant  and  retired  location  and  a  play-ground.  No.  16  has 
a  log  shanty  for  a  school-house.  No.  17,  'no  regular  school-house  other 
than  some  old  log  house.'  No.  18,  no  school-house.  No.  19,  a  log  shanty. 
No.  20  and  21  are  new  districts.  No.  22  has  a  frame  school-house,  in 
good  repair  and  pleasantly  situated.  Thus,  out  of  twenty-two  school- 
houses,  not  more  than  jive  are  reported  as  respectable  or  comfortable ; 
none  have  any  proper  means  of  ventilation ;  eight  are  built  of  logs ;  and 
but  one  of  them,  according  to  the  visitors,  has  a  privy. — Report  (1840). 
p.  142. 

It  is  also  a  subject  of  frequent  complaint  in  these  reports,  that  the  seats 
are  too  high  (too  high,  say  the  visiters  in  one  case,  for  a  man  of  six  feet, 
and  all  alike),  and  are,  therefore,  uncomfortable  for  the  children,  as  well 
as  productive  of  much  disorder.  '  We  have  found,'  says  the  report  from 
one  town,  '  except  in  one  school,  all  the  seats  and  desks  much  too  high, 
and  in  that  one  they  were  recently  cut  down  at  our  recommendation.  In 
many  of  our  schools,  a  considerable  number  of  children  are  crowded  into 
the  same  seat,  and  commonly  those  seated  beyond  the  entering  place 
have  no  means  of  getting  at  their  seats  but  by  climbing  over  those 
already  seated,  and  to  the  ruin  of  all  regard  to  cleanliness.' 

(  We  have  witnessed  much  uneasiness,  if  not  suffering,  among  the 
children,  from  the  dangling  of  their  legs  from  a  high  seat,  and,  with  the 
one  exception,  have  seen  them  attempting  to  write  on  desks  so  high  that, 
instead  of  the  elbow  resting  to  assist  the  hand  in  guiding  the  pen,  the 
whole  arm  has,  of  necessity,  been  stretched  out ;  for,  if  they  did  not  this, 
they  must  write  rather  by  guess  than  sight,  unless  some  one  may  have 
the  fortune  to  be  near-sighted,  and,  from  this  defect,  succeed  in  seeing  his 
work.  This  is  a  great  evil,  and  ought  to  be  remedied  before  we  complain 
of  the  incompetency  of  teachers.' — Report  (1841),  p.  38. 

These  specimens  will  serve  to  show  how  far  many  of  the  school- 
houses,  in  this  state,  are  pleasant  places  of  resort,  or  study,  and  in  what 
degree  they  are  likely  to  inspire  a  respect  for  education,  or  a  desire  to 
enjoy  and  improve  its  advantages.  The  condition  and  aspect  of  the 
building,  with  its  appendages  and  surrounding  landscape,  are  inseparably 
associated,  in  a  child's  mind,  with  his  first  day  at  school,  and  his  first 
thoughts  about  education.  Is  it  well,  then,  that  these  earliest,  most 
lasting,  and  most  controlling  associations,  should  be  charged  with  so 
much  that  is  offensive  ?  Is  it  to  be  expected,  that  the  youthful  mind  can 
regard  that  as  the  cause,  next  to  religion,  most  important  of  all  others, 
which  is  upheld  and  promoted,  in  such  buildings,  as  the  district  school- 
house  usually  is  ?  Among  the  most  comfortless  and  wretched  tenements, 
which  the  pupil  ever  enters,  he  thinks  of  it  with  repugnance ;  the  tasks 
which  it  imposes,  he  dreads ;  and  he  at  length  takes  his  leave  of  it,  as  of 
a  prison,  from  which  he  is  but  too  happy  to  escape. 

This  seems  to  me  to  be  the  greatest  evil  connected  with  our  school- 
houses.  But  their  deleterious  effect  on  health,  is  also  to  be  considered. 
Air  which  has  been  once  respired  by  the  lungs,  parts  with  its  healthy 
properties,  and  is  no  longer  fit  for  use.  Hence  a  number  of  persons, 
breathing  the  air  of  the  same  apartment,  soon  contaminate  it.  unless  the 
space  is  very  large,  or  unless  there  is  some  provision  for  the  introduction 
of  fresh,  as  well  as  the  exclusion  of  foul  air.  This  ventilation  is  espe- 
cially important  for  school-houses,  since  they  are  usually  small  in  propor- 
tion to  the  number  of  scholars ;  the  scholars  remain  together  a  long  while 
at  once,  and  are  less  cleanly  in  their  personal  habits  than  adults.  Yet, 
important  as  it  is,  probably  not  one  common  school  in  fifty,  in  this  state 


SCHOOL  HOUSES  AS  THEY  ARE.  33 

will  be  found  supplied  with  adequate  means  to  effect  it  The  cracks  and 
crevices,  which  abound  in  our  school-houses,  admit  quite  enough  of  cold 
air  in  winter,  but  not  enough  of  fresh.  What  is  wanted  at  that  season, 
for  both  health  and  economy,  is  a  constant  supply  of  fresh  warm  air ;  and 
this  is  easily  obtained  by  causing  the  air,  as  it  enters  from  without,  to 
pass  through  heated  flues,  or  over  heated  surfaces. 

It  is  also  important,  to  the  health  of  scholars  and  teachers  in  common 
schools,  that  the  rooms  should  be  larger  and  have  higher  ceilings ;  and 
that  much  more  scrupulous  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  cleanliness  of 
both  the  room  and  its  inmates.  '  An  evil,'  say  the  visiters  of  one  of  the 
towns.  •  greater  than  the  variety  of  school-books  or  the  want  of  necessary 
apparatus,  is  having  school-rooms  so  unskilfully  made  and  arranged. 
Of  our  13  school-rooms,  only  3  are  ten  feet  high,  and  of  the  residue  only 
one  is  over  eight  feet.  The  stupidity  arising  from  foul,  oft-breathed  air. 
is  set  down  as  a  grave  charge  against  the  capacity  of  the  scholars  or  the 
energy  of  the  teacher.  A  room  for  30  children,  allowing  12  square  feet 
for  each  child,  is  low  at  10  feet,  and  for  every  additional  ten  children  an 
extra  foot  in  elevation  is  absolutely  necessary,  to  enable  the  occupants  oi 
the  room  to  breathe  freely.' — Report  (1841),  p.  38. 

Are  common  schools  so  conducted,  as  to  promote  habits  of  neatness  and 
order,  and  cultivate  good  manners  and  refined  feelings  ? 

From  the  quotations  already  made  from  the  reports  of  visiters,  it 
appears  that  the  school-rooms,  in  many  cases,  were  not  clean ;  and  the 
same  thing  is  often  alleged  of  the  children.  I  will  add  but  one  other 
passage,  to  which  I  happen  to  open  on  p.  39  of  the  Report  (1840).  It 
relates  to  a  town  containing  24  school  districts,  of  which  16  were  visited. 
Of  these  16,  one  quarter  are  represented  to  have  been  almost  entirely 
regardless  of  neatness  and  order,  viz.:  No.  4  ' has  a  dirty  school-room, 
and  the  appearance  of  the  children  was  dirty  and  sickly.'  No.  2  'has  a 
dirty  school-room,  inconveniently  arranged,  and  ventilated  all  over  ;3  the 
children  '  rather  dirty,'  and  no  means  of  supplying  fresh  water  except 
from  the  neighbor's  pails  and  cups.  No.  3  has  •  an  extremely  dirty  school- 
room, without  ventilation,  the  children  not  clean,  and  no  convenience  for 
water.'  No.  24  'has  a  school-house  out  of  repair,  dirty,  and  inconvenient 
in  its  arrangements.' 

It  is  also  a  subject  of  almost  universal  complaint,  that  the  school-houses 
are  without  privies.  On  an  average,  probably  not  more  than  one  in 
twenty,  of  the  school-houses  throughout  the  state,  has  this  appendage; 
and  in  these,  it  was  almost  invariably  found,  by  the  visiters,  to  be  in  a  bad 
state.  This  fact  speaks  volumes,  of  the  attention,  which  is  paid  at  these 
schools,  to  delicacy  of  manners,  and  refinement  of  feeling.  None  but  the 
very  poorest  families  think  of  living  without  such  a  convenience  at  home; 
and  a  man.  who  should  build  a  good  dwelling-house,  but  provide  no  place 
for  retirement  when  performing  the  most  private  offices  of  nature,  would 
be  thought  to  give  the  clearest  evidence  of  a  coarse  and  brutal  mind. 
Yet  respectable  parents  allow  their  children  to  go  to  a  school  where  this 
is  the  case ;  and  where  the  evil  is  greatly  aggravated  bv  the  fact,  that 
numbers  of  both  sexes  are  collected,  and  that,  too,  at  an  age  of  extreme 
levity,  and  when  the  youthful  mind  is  prone  to  the  indulgence  of  a  pm- 
rient  imagination.  Says  one  of  the  visiters  (Report,  1840,  p.  77), '  In 
most  cases  in  this  town,  the  scholars,  male  and  female,  are  turned  promis- 
cuously and  simultaneously  into  the  public  highway,  without  the  shelter 
of  so  much  (in  the  old  districts)  as  a  '  stump'  for  a  covert  to  the  calls  of 
nature.  The  baneful  tendency,  on  the  young  and  pliant  sensibilities,  of 
this  barbarous  custom,  are  truly  lamentable.'  So  the  visiters  of  one  of 
the  largest  and  oldest  counties :  '  We  regret  to  perceive  that  many  of  the 
districts  have  neglected  to  erect  privies  for  the  use  of  the  children  at 

3 


34  SCHOOL  HOUSES  AS  THEY  ARE. 

school.  This  is  a  lamentable  error.  The  injury  to  the  taste  and  morais 
of  the  children  which  will  naturally  result  from  this  neglect,  is  of  a  char- 
acter much  more  serious  than  the  discomfort  which  is  obviously  produced 
by  it.'— (Report,  1840,  p.  131.)" 

VERMONT. 

EXTRACT  from  the  "  First  Annual  Report  of  the  State  Superint&ident 

(Hon.  Horace  Eaton,)  of  Common  Schools,  October,  1846,"  made  to  the 

Legislature. 

"  It  might  occur  to  any  one  in  travelling  through  the  State,  that  our 
school-houses  are  almost  uniformly  located  in  an  uninteresting  and  un- 
suitable spot,  and  that  the  buildings  themselves  too  generally  exhibit  an 
unfavorable,  and  even  repulsive  aspect.  Yet  by  giving  some  license  to 
the  imagination  it  might  be  supposed  that,  notwithstanding  their  location 
and  external  aspect  were  so  forbidding,  the  internal  appearance  would  be 
more  cheerful  and  pleasant — or  at  least,  that  the  arrangement  and  con- 
struction within  would  be  comfortably  adapted  to  the  purposes  which  the 
school-house  was  intended  to  fulfil.  But  an  actual  inspection  of  by  far 
the  greatest  number  of  the  school-houses  in  the  State,  by  County  Super- 
intendents, discloses  the  unpleasant  fact,  that  ordinarily  the  interior  does 
but  correspond  with  the  exterior,  or  is,  if  possible,  still  worse.  A  very 
large  proportion  of  these  buildings  throughout  the  State  must  be  set 
down  as  in  a  miserable  condition.  The  melancholy  fact  is  established  by 
the  concurrent  report  of  all  our  County  Superintendents,  that  in  every 
quarter  of  the  State  they  are,  as  a  class,  altogether  unsuited  to  their 
high  purposes.  Probably  nine-tenths  of  them  are  located  upon  the  line 
of  the  highway ;  and  as  the  geographical  centre  of  the  district  usually 
determines  their  situation,  aside  from  the  relation  with  the  road,  it  is  a 
rare  chance  that  one  is  not  placed  in  an  exposed,  unpleasant  and  uncom- 
fortable spot.  In  some  cases — especially  in  villages — their  location 
seems  to  be  determined  by  the  worth,  or  rather  by  the  icorthlessness  of 
the  ground  on  which  they  stand — that  being  selected  which  is  of  the 
least  value  for  any  other  purpose.  Seldom  or  never  do  we  see  our  school- 
houses  surrounded  by  trees  or  shrubbery,  to  serve  the  purpose  which 
they  might  serve  so  well — that  of  delighting  the  eye,  gratifying  the 
taste,  and  contributing  to  the  physical  comfort,  by  shielding  from  the 
scorching  sun  of  summer,  and  breaking  the  bleak  winds  of  winter.  And 
from  buildings  thus  situated  and  thus  exposed,  pupils  are  turned  out  into 
the  streets  for  their  sports,  and  for  other  purposes  still  more  indispensable. 
What  better  results  could  be  expected  under  such  a  system  than  that 
our  '  girls  should  become  hoydens  and  our  boys  blackguards  ?'  Indeed 
it  would  be  a  happy  event,  if  in  no  case  results  still  more  melancholy  and 
disastrous  than  this  were  realized. 

But  this  notice  of  ordinary  deficiencies  does  not  cover  the  whole  ground 
of  error  in  regard  to  the  situation  of  school-houses.  In  some  cases  they 
are  brought  into  close  connection  with  positive  nuisances.  In  a  case 
which  has  fallen  under  the  Superintendent's  own  personal  observation, 
one  side  of  the  school-house  forms  part  of  the  fence  of  a  hog-yard,  into 
which,  during  the  summer,  the  calves  from  an  extensive  dairy  establish- 
ment have  been  thrown  from  time  to  time,  (disgusting  anil  revolting 
spectacle !)  to  be  rent  and  devoured  before  the  eyes  of  teacher  and  pu- 
pils— except  such  portions  of  the  mutilated  and  mangled  carcasses  as 
were  left  by  the  animals  to  go  to  decay,  as  they  lay  exposed  to  the  sun 
and  storm.  It  is  true  the  windows  on  the  side  of  the  building  adjoining 
the  yard,  were  generally  observed  to  be  closed,  in  order  to  shut  out  the 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AS  THEY  ARE.  35 

almost  insupportable  stench  which  arose  from  the  decomposing  remains. 
But  this  closure  of  windows  could,  in  no  great  degree,  '  abate  the  nui- 
sance ;'  for  not  a  breath  of  air  could  enter  the  house  from  any  direction 
but  it  must  come  saturated  with  the  disgusting  and  sickening  odor  that 
loaded  the  atmosphere  around.  It  needs  no  professional  learning  to  tell 
the  deleterious  influence  upon  health,  which  must  be  exerted  by  such  an 
agency,  operating  for  continuous  hours. 

Such  cases,  it  is  hoped  and  believed,  are  exceedingly  rare.  But  it  is 
much  to  be  feared  that  the  usual  exemption  enjoyed  by  teachers  and  pu- 
pils, from  even  such  outrages  upon  their  senses  and  sensibilities,  as  have 
been  detailed,  is  to  be  attributed  to  the  fact  that  such  arrangements  are 
not  ordinarily  convenient,  rather  than  to  any  prevailing  conviction  of 
their  impropriety,  or  any  general  and  settled  purpose  to  avoid  them. 
The  case  is  named  as  at  least  strong  evidence  that  the  pertinency  of  con- 
siderations, involving  a  regard  either  to  taste,  comfort,  or  even  health  it- 
self, is  generally  overlooked  or  disregarded,  in  fixing  upon  a  site  for  a 
school-house.  At  all  events  these  purposes  are  all  exposed  to  be  violated 
under  the  prevailing  neglect  of  districts  to  secure  the  possession  of  suf- 
ficient ground  for  a  yard  around  the  school-house.  But  it  would  seem 
unnecessary  to  urge,  beyond  the  bare  suggestion,  the  importance  of  pro- 
viding for  school-houses,  a  comfortable  location,  a  sufficient  yard  and 
play-ground,  a  Avood-house  and  other  out-buildings,  a  convenient  access 
to  Avater,  and  the  surrounding  of  the  premises  with  shade-trees  which 
might  serve  for  shelter,  as  well  as  delight  the  eye.  and  aid  to  render  the 
school-house — what  it  should  be — one  of  the  most  attracting  and  delight- 
ful places  of  resort  upon  the  face  of  the  earth.  It  should  be  such,  that 
when  the  child  shall  have  changed  into  the  gray-haired  man,  and  his 
memory  wanders  back  through  the  long  vista  of  vanished  years,  seeking 
for  some  object  on  which  it  may  repose,  this  shall  be  the  spot  where  it 
shall  love  to  rest. 

In  the  construction  of  the  school-house — embracing  its  material,  style 
of  architecture,  and  finish — as  little  care  and  taste  are  exhibited,  as 
might  be  expected  from  the  indifference  manifested  in  regard  to  its  loca- 
tion and  surrounding  circumstances.  Cheapness  of  construction  seems, 
in  most  cases,  to  be  the  great  governing  principle,  which  decides  upon 
its  materials,  its  form,  and  all  its  internal  arrangements.  No  complaint 
on  this  score  could  justly  be  made,  if  the  general  condition  of  these  build- 
ings were  clearly  and  fairly  attributed  to  want  of  ability.  But  while  our 
other  edifices,  both  public  and  private,  have  improved  in  elegance,  con- 
venience, and  taste,  with  the  increasing  wealth  of  our  citizens,  our  school- 
houses  linger  in  the  rear  and  bear  the  impress  of  a  former  age.  In  this 
respect 

1  That  which  in  days  of  yore  we  were 
We  at  the  present  moment  are. ' 

LOAV  walls  might  be  instanced  as  one  of  the  prevailing  defects  in 
school-house  architecture.  The  quantity  of  air  contained  in  a  school- 
room of  the  usual  height,  is  so  small  as  to  be  soon  exhausted  of  its  oxy- 
gen; and  the  dullness,  headache  and  depression  which  succeed  to  this 
result,  are  but  too  Avell  known  and  too  often  felt,  although  they  may  fail 
of  being  attributed  to  their  true  cause.  And  why  should  our  children  be 
robbed  of  a  comfortable  supply  of  that  pure  and  wholesome  air,  with 
which  our  Creator,  in  the  largeness  and  richness  of  his  bounty,  has  sur- 
rounded the  earth  and  filled  the  sky?  But  if  the  condition  of  the  house 
is  such,  as  in  part  to  prevent  the  injurious  effects  arising  from  a  deficiency 
of  pure  air,  by  means  of  broken  windoAvs  and  gaping  crevices — then 
colds,  coughs  and  as  the  ultimate  and  croAvning  result — consumption — 


36  SCHOOL-HOUSES  AS  THEY  ARE. 

(and  of  this  disease,  what  thousands  of  cases  have  had  their  foundations 
laid  in  the  school-house !)  must  be  the  consequence  of  this  sort  of  ex 
posure.  This  is  true  in  regard  to  all  classes  and  conditions  of  pupils. 
But  it  should  be  distinctly  kept  in  mind,  although  it  is  ordinarily  overlooked 
and  forgotten,  that  children  accustomed  to  be  comfortably  protected 
against  cold  or  vicissitudes  of  temperature,  at  home,  will  inevitably  suffer 
the  more  when  exposed  to  them  in  the  school-house.  And  here  is  an  ad- 
ditional reason  why  these  structures  should  be  improved,  as  our  dwelling 
houses  are  generally  becoming  more  comfortable. 

But  there  is  not  room  here  for  details — not  even  to  exhibit  this  topic  in 
all  its  important  bearings.  And  it  has  been  thus  hinted  at  only  to  prove 
that  the  general  charge  of  faulty  construction  is  not  wholly  unfounded. 

It  was  the  purpose  of  the  Superintendent  to  discuss  at  some  length, 
the  pernicious  influence  exerted,  both  upon  the  health  of  pupils,  and 
their  progress  in  learning,  by  the  miserable  structures  in  which  the  State 
a.bounds,  but  the  extent  of  the  remarks  already  made  precludes  it. 

One  cause  of  the  prevailing  fault  in  regard  to  the  construction  and  in- 
ternal arrangement  of  school-houses,  doubtless,  is  the  want  of  proper 
models.  Districts,  when  about  erecting  a  school-house,  cannot  well  do 
more  than  follow  the  examples  before  them.  To  form  the  plan  of  a 
proper  school-house — one  well  adapted  to  all  the  various  ends  which 
should  be  sought,  such  as  the  convenience,  comfort,  and  health  of  pupils, 
convenience  for  supervision  and  conduct  of  the  school,  and  facilities  for 
the  most  successful  prosecution  of  study — would  require  such  an  extent 
of  observation  and  so  full  an  acquaintance  with  the  laws  of  health,  of 
mind  and  morals — and  then  such  a  skill  in  designing  a  structure  in  which 
all  the  necessary  conditions  should  be  observed  and  secured,  that  it  would 
be  unreasonable  to  expect  that  a  district  could  command  them,  without 
an  opportunity  to  avail  itself  of  the  experience  and  observation  of  others. 
And  districts  have  almost  universally  felt,  this  lack  of  guidance.  But  it 
is  believed  that  hereafter,  information  on  the  subject  of  school-house 
architecture,  will  be  more  accessible ;  and  if,  as  a  first  step,  some  one 
district  in  every  town  in  the  State  would  avail  itself  of  the  necessary 
information,  and  make  a  vigorous  effort  to  secure  the  erection  of  a  well 
located,  well  planned,  and  well  constructed  school-house,  they  would  per- 
form an  act  of  high  public  beneficence,  as  well  as  confer  upon  themselves 
an  inestimable  blessing.  And  shall  not  one  or  two  years  realize  the  ac- 
complishment of  tliis  noble  purpose  ?  What  district  will  lead  the  van  ? 


NEW  HAMPSHIRE. 

EXTRACTS  from  the  "Report  of  the  Commissioner,  (Prof.  Hadikick.  of 

Dartmouth  College}  of  Common  Schools,  to  the  Legislature  of  A'«j 

Hampshire,  June  Session,  1847." 

"  The  success  of  our  whole  system  depends  as  much  on  a  thorough  re- 
form in  the  construction  and  care  of  school-houses  as  upon  any  other 
single  circumstance  whatever. 

It  is  wonderful,  and  when  their  attention  is  called  to  it,  strikes  the  in- 
habitants of  the  Districts  themselves  as  really  unaccountable,  that  care- 
ful and  anxious  parents  have  been  content  to  confine  their  children  for  so 
many  hours  a  day  through  a  large  part  of  the  severest  and  most  trying 
seasons  of  the  year,  in  houses  so  ill  constructed,  so  badly  ventilated,  so 
imperfectly  warmed,  so  dirty,  so  instinct  with  vulgar  ideas,  and  so  utterly 
repugnant  to  all  habits  of  neatness,  thought,  taste,  or  purity.  There  are 
multitudes  of  houses  in  the  State,  not  only  inconveniently  located,  and 
awkwardly  planned,  but  absolutely  dangerous  to  health  and  morals. 


SCHOOL  HOUSES  AS  THEY  ARE.  37 

And  it  has  struck  me  with  the  greater  surprise,  that  this  is  true  not  only  of 
the  thinly  peopled  parts  of  the  State,  but  of  nourishing  villages.  In  one 
of  the  largest  towns  the  principal  District  School  was  kept,  the  last  win- 
ter, in  a  dilapidated,  rickety,  uncouth,  slovenly  edifice,  hardly  more  com- 
fortable than  some  barns  within  sight  of  it.  "in  one  enterprising  village 
the  school-house,  as  I  looked  at  it  from  a  little  distance,  appeared  deci- 
dedly the  shabbiest  and  most  neglected  building,  not  to  say  dwelling, 
within  reach  of  my  eye.  I  have  been  in  houses,  which  no  scrubbing 
could  keep  clean;  they  were  never  made  to  be  clean:  and  this,  in  places, 
where  private  taste  is  adorning  the  town  with  the  ornaments  of  architec- 
ture and  enriching  the  country  with  the  fruits  of  rural  industry. 

It  is,  however,  encouraging  to  find,  that  a  better  feeling  is  coming  to 
prevail  on  this  subject.  Many  districts  are  rebuilding,  and,  in  most  in- 
stances, upon  an  improved  plan.  Some  examples  have  been  set  of  good 
judgment  and  liberal  expenditure  for  this  important  object.  And  it  is 
hop'ed,  that  other  districts  will  be  stimulated  to  imitate  them. 

Whenever  a  new  house  is  to  be  erected,  it  should  first  be  carefully  lo- 
cated, so  as  best  to  accommodate  the  whole  district,  and  by  all  means,  on 
an  open,  healthy,  agreeable  site,  with  ample  room  about  it  on  all  sides 
and  out  of  the  way  of  floods  of  water  or  of  dust. 

MAINE. 

EXTRACT  from  a  special il  Report  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Board  of  Ed 

ucation,  upon  the  subject  of  School-Houses." 

{:  It  is  worthy  of  note,  and  of  most  serious  consideration,  that  a  ma- 
jority of  the  returns  speak  of  ill-constructed  school-houses  as  one  of  the 
most  prominent  'defects  in  the  practical  operation  of  the  law  establishing 
common-schools.'  The  strength  and  uniformity  of  the  language  made 
use  of.  as  well  as  the  numerous  applications  to  the  members°of  the  board, 
and  their  secretary,  for  information  upon  this  subject,  leave  no  room  for 
doubt  as  to  the  existence  of  a  wide-spread  evil ;  an  evil,  the  deleterious 
influence  of  which,  unless  it  is  reformed,  and  that  speedily,  is  not  to  be  con- 
fined to  the  present  generation,  but  must  be  entailed  upon  posterity.  In 
remarking  upon  this  subject,  as  long  ago  as  1832,  it  was  said  by  the 
board  of  censors  of  the  American  Institute  of  Instruction,  that  '  if  we 
were  called  upon  to  name  the  most  prominent  defect  in  the  schools  of  our 
country ;  that  which  contributes  most,  directly  and  indirectly,  to  retard 
the  progress  of  public  education,  and  which  most  loudly  calls  for  a 
prompt  and  thorough  reform,  it  would  be  the  want  of  spacious  and  con- 
venient school-houses.'  From  every  indication,  there  is  reason  to  believe 
that  the  remark  is  applicable  to  our  school-houses,  in  their  present  con- 
dition, as  it  was  when  made.  For  the  purpose  of  contributing,  in  some 
small  degree,  towards  effecting  a  reform  for  which  so  urgent  a  necessity 
exists,  and  rendering  some  assistance,  in  the  way  of  counsel,  to  those  wTho 
are  about  erecting  new  school-houses,  or  remodelling  old  ories,  this  report 
is  prepared,  under  the  direction  of  the  board.  It  makes  no  claim  to  origi- 
nality of  thought  or  language  ;  it  is,  in  fact,  a  mere  compilation  of  the 
thoughts  and  language  of  others  who  have  given  the  subject  a  carelh, 
investigation,  whose  opinions  are  the  result  of  close  observation  and  long 
experience,  and  are  therefore  entitled  to  our  confidence  and  respect  To 
save  the  necessity  of  giving  credit,  upon  almost  every  page  of  this  report 
for  borrowed  language,  as  well  as  ideas,  it  may  here  be  remarked,  that 
the  principal  sources  from  which  the  information  herewith  communicated 
has  been  compiled,  are.  the  reports  upon  the  subject  of  school-houses,  by 
Hon.  Horace  Mann  and  Henry  Barnard,  Esq.,  and  'The  School-master'' 
by  Mr.  George  B.  Emerson ;  gentlemen  to  whom,  for  their  efforts  in  the 


gg  SCHOOL-HOUSES  AS  THEY  ARE. 

cause,  a  large  debt  of  gratitude  is  due  from  the  friends  of  education ;  a 
debt  which  can  be  discharged  in  no  manner  more  acceptable  to  them, 
than  by  entering  into  their  labors,  a-nd  adopting  and  reducing  to  practice 
their  very  valuable  suggestions." 

RHODE  ISLAND. 

EXTRACTS  from  "  Report  on  the  condition  and  improvement  of  the  Pub- 
lic Schools  of  Rhode  Island,  submitted  Nov.  1, 1845,  by  Henry  Barnard. 
Commissioner  of  Public  Schools." 

"  The  condition  of  the  school-houses,  was,  in  my  circuit  through  the 
schools,  brought  early  and  constantly  under  my  notice,  and  to  effect  an 
immediate  and  thorough  reform,  public  attention  was  early  and  earnestly 
called  to  the  subject.  The  many  and  great  evils  to  the  health,  manners, 
morals,  and  intellectual  habits  of  children,  which  grow  out  of  their  bad 
and  defective  construction  and  appurtenances,  were  discussed  and  ex- 
posed, and  the  advantages  of  more  complete  and  convenient  structures 
pointed  out  In  compliance  with  the  request  of  the  Committee  on  Edu- 
cation, a  law  authorizing  school  districts  to  lay  and  collect  a  tax  to  repair 
the  old,  and  build  new  school-houses,  was  drafted  and  passed ;  and  in 
pursuance  of  a  resolution  of  the  General  Assembly,  a  document  was  pre- 
pared embodying  the  results  of  my  observations  and  reflections  on  the 
general  principles  of  school-architecture,  and  such  plans  and  descriptions 
of  various  structures  recently  erected,  for  large  and  small,  city  and  coun- 
try districts,  and  for  schools  of  different  grades,  as  would  enable  any  com- 
mittee to  act  understandingly.  in  framing  a  plan  suitable  to  the  wants  of 
any  particular  district  or  school.  The  same  document  was  afterwards 
abridged  and  distributed  widely,  as  one  of  the  'Educational  Tracts? 
over  the  state.  I  have  secured  the  building  of  at  least  one  school-house 
in  each  county,  which  can  be  pointed  to  as  a  model  in  all  the  essential 
features  of  location,  construction,  warming,  ventilation,  seats  and  desks3 
and  other  internal  and  external  arrangements. 

During  the  past  two  years,  more  than  fifty  school-houses  have  been 
erected,  or  so  thoroughly  repaired,  as  to  be  substantially  new — and  most 
of  them  after  plans  and  directions  given  in  the  above  document,  or  fur- 
nished directly  by  myself,  on  application  from  districts  or  committees." 

"  Of  these,  (three  hundred  and  twelve  school-houses  visited.)  twenty- 
nine  were  owned  by  towns  in  their  corporate  capacity ;  one  hundred  and 
forty-seven  by  proprietors ;  and  one  hundred  and  forty-five  by  school  dis- 
tricts. Of  two  hundred  and  eighty  school-houses  from  which  full  re- 
turns were  received,  including  those  in  Providence,  twenty-five  were  in 
very  good  repair;  sixty-two  were  in  ordinary  repair;  and  eighty-six 
were  pronounced  totally  unfit  for  school  purposes ;  sixty-five  were  located 
in  the  public  highway,  and  one  hundred  and  eighty  directly  on  the  line 
of  the  road,  ^  without  any  yard,  or  out-buildings  attached ;  and  but  twenty- 
one  had  a  play-ground  inclosed.  In  over  two  hundred  school-rooms,  the 
average  height  was  less  than  eight  feet,  without  any  opening  in  the  ceil- 
ing, or  other  effectual  means  for  ventilation ;  the  seats  and  desks  were 
calculated  for  more  than  two  pupils,  arranged  on  two  or  three  sides  of 
the  room,  and  in  most  instances,  where  the  results  of  actual  measurement 
was  given,  the  highest  seats  were  over  eighteen  inches  from  the  floor, 
and  the  lowest,  except  in  twenty-five  schools,  were  over  fourteen  inches 
for  the  youngest  pupils,  and  these  seats  were  unprovided  with  backs 
Two  hundred  and  seventy  schools  were  unfurnished  with  a  clock,  black- 
board, or  thermometer,  and  only  five  were  provided  with  a  scraper  and 
mat  for  the  feet." 


SCHOOL  HOUSES  AS  THEY  ARE.  39 

"Such  was  the  condition  of  most  of  the  places  where  the  public  schools 
were  kept  in  the  winter  of  1343-44.  in  the  counties  of  Kent,  Washington 
and  Newport,  and  in  not  a  few  districts  in  the  counties  of  Providence  and 
Bristol.  In  some  districts,  an  apartment  in  an  old  shop  or  dwelling-house 
was  fitted  up  as  a  school-room ;  and  in  eleven  towns,  the  school-houses, 
such  as  they  were,  were  owned  by  proprietors,  to  whom  in  many  in- 
stances, the  districts  paid  in  rent  a  larger  amount  than  would  have  been 
the  interest  on  the  cost  of  a  new  and  commodious  school  house.  Since 
the  passage  of  the  Act  of  January,  1844.  empowering  school  districts  to 
purchase,°repair,  build  and  furnish  school-houses,  and  since  public  atten- 
tion was  called  to  the  evils  and  inconvenience  of  the  old  structures,  and  to 
better  plans  of  construction  and  internal  arrangement,  by  public  addresses, 
and  the  circulation  of  documents,  the  work  of  renovation  in  this  depart- 
ment of  school  improvement  has  gone  on  rapidly.  If  the  same  progress 
can  be  made  for  three  years  more,  Rhode  Island  can  show,  in  proportion 
to  the  number  of  school  districts;  more  specimens  of  good  houses,  and 
fewer  dilapidated,  inconvenient  and  unhealthy  structures  of  this  kind,  than 
any  other  state.  To  bring  about  thus  early  this  great  and  desirable 
result.  I  can  suggest  nothing  beyond  the  vigorous  prosecution  of  the 
same  measures  which  have  proved  so  successful  during  the  past  two 
years. 

1.  The  public  mind  in  the  backward  districts  must  be  aroused  to  an 
active  sense  of  the  close  connection  of  a  good  school-house  with  a  good 
school,  by  addresses,  discussions,  conversation  and  printed  documents  on 
the  subject,  and  by  the  actual  results  of  such  houses  in  neighboring  dis- 
tricts and  towns. 

2.  Men  of  wealth  and  intelligence  in  their  several  neighborhoods,  and 
capitalists,  in  villages  where  they  have  a  pecuniary  interest,  can  continue 
tc  exert  their  influence  in  this  department  of  improvement. 

3.  School  committees  of  every  town  can  refuse  to  draw  orders  in  favor 
of  any  district  which  will  not  provide  a  healthy  and  convenient  school- 
room for  the  children  of  the  district ;  and  to  approve  plans  for  the  repairs 
of  an  old,  or  the  construction  of  a  new  house,  which  are  to  be  paid  for  by 
a  tax  on  the  property  of  the  district,  unless  such  plans  embrace  the  essen- 
tial features  of  a  good  school-house. 

4.  The  Commissioner  of  Public  Schools  must  continue  to  furnish  gra- 
tuitously, plans  and  directions  for  the  construction  and  arrangement  of 
school-houses,  and  to  call  the  attention  of  builders  and  committees  to  such 
structures  as  can  be  safely  designated  as  models. 

Districts  should  make  regulations  to  preserve  the  school-house  and 
appendages  from  injury  or  defacement,  and  authorizing  the  trustees  to 
make  all  necessary  repairs,  without  the  formality  of  a  special  vote  on  the 
subject." 

MICHIGAN. 

EXTRACTS  from  "Annual  Report  of  the  Superintendent  (Hon.  Ira  May 
hew.}  of  Public  Instruction  of  the  State  of  Michisran.  submitted  Decem- 
ber 10,  1847." 

"  The  place  where  our  country's  youth  receive  their  first  instruction,  and 
where  nineteen  twentieths  of  them  complete  their  scholastic  training 
claims  early  attention.  We  may  then  profitably  dwell  upon  the  condi- 
tion of  our  common  school-houses. 

In  some  instances  school-houses  are  favorably  located,  being  situated 
on  dry.  hard  ground,  in  a  retired  though  central  part  of  the  district,  in  the 
midst  of  a  natural  or  artificial  grove.  But  they  are  usually  located  with- 
out reference  to  taste,  or  the  health  and  comfort  of  teacher  or  children. 
They  are  generally  on  one  corner  of  public  roads,  and  sometimes  adja* 


40  SCHOOL-HOUSES  AS  THEY  ARE. 

cent  to  a  cooper's  shop,  or  between  a  blacksmith's  shop  and  a  saw-mill. 
They  are  not  unfrequently  placed  upon  an  acute  angle,  where  a  road 
forks,  and  sometimes  in  turning  that  angle  the  travel  is  chiefly  behind 
the  school-house,  leaving  it  on  a  small  triangle,  bounded  on  all  sides  by 
public  roads. 

At  other  times  the  school-house  is  situated  on  a  low  and  worthless 
piece  of  ground,  with  a  sluggish  stream  of  water  in  its  vicinity,  which 
sometimes  even  passes  under  the  school-house.  The  comfort  and  health 
even  of  children  are  thus  sacrificed  to  the  parsimony  of  their  parents. 

Scholars  very  generally  step  from  the  school-house  directly  into  the 
highway.  Indeed,  school-houses  are  frequently  one  half  in  the  highway, 
and  the  other  half  in  the  adjacent  field,  as  though  they  were  unfit  for 
either.  This  is  the  case  even  in  some  of  our  principal  villages. 

School-houses  are  sometimes  situated  in  the  middle  of  the  highway,  a 
portion  of  the  travel  being  on  each  side  of  them.  When  scholars  are  en- 
gaged in  their  recreations,  they  are  exposed  to  bleak  winds  and  the  in- 
clemency of  the  weather  one  portion  of  the  year,  and  the  scorching  rays 
of  the  meridian  sun  another  portion.  Moreover,  their  recreations  must 
be  conducted  in  the  street,  or  they  trespass  upon  their  neighbors'  premi- 
ses. Such  situations  can  hardly  be  expected  to  exert  the  most  favorable 
influence  upon  the  habits  and  character  of  the  rising  generation.  *  * 

Although  there  is  a  great  variety  in  the  dimensions  of  school-houses, 
yet  therelire  few  less  than  sixteen  by  eighteen  feet  on  the  ground,  and 
fewer  still  larger  than  twenty-four  by  thirty  feet.  Exclusive  of  entry  and 
closets,  when  they  are  furnished  with  these  appendages,  school-houses 
are  not  usually  larger  than  twenty  by  twenty-four  feet  on  the  ground, 
and  seven  feet  in  height.  They  are,  indeed,  more  frequently  smaller 
than  larger.  School-houses  of  these  dimensions  have  a  capacity  of  three 
thousand  three  hundred  and  sixty  cubic  feet,  and  are  usually  occupied  by 
at  least  forty-five  scholars  in  the  winter  season.  Not  unfrequently  sixty 
or  seventy,  and  occasionally  more  than  a  hundred  scholars  occupy  a  room 
of  this  size. 

A  simple  arithmetical  computation  will  abundantly  satisfy  any  person 
who  is  acquainted  with  the  composition  of  the  atmosphere,  the  influence 
of  respiration  upon  its  fitness  to  sustain  animal  life,  and  the  quantity  of 
air  that  enters  the  lungs  at  each  inspiration,  that  a  school-room  of  the 
preceding  dimensions  does  not  contain  a  sufficient  quantity  of  air  to  sus- 
tain the  healthy  respiration  of  even  forty-five  scholars,  three  hours,  the 
usual  length  of  each  session ;  and  frequently  the  school-house  is  imper- 
fectly ventilated  between  the  sessions  at  noon,  or  indeed,  for  several  days 
in  succession. 

The  ordinary  facilities  for  ventilating  school-rooms,  are  opening  a  door, 
or  raising  the  lower  sash  of  the  windows.  The  prevailing  practice  with 
refrence  to  their  ventilation,  is  opening  and  closing  the  door,  as  the  schol- 
ars enter  and  pass  out  of  the  school-house,  before  school,  during  the  re- 
cesses, and  at  noon.  Ventilation,  as  ntcn,  I  may  safely  say,  has  not 
hitherto  been  practiced  in  one  school  in  fifty.  It  is  true,  the  door  has  been 
occasionally  set  open  a  few  minutes,  and  the  windows  have  been  raised, 
but  the  object  has  been,  either  to  let  the  smoke  pass  out  of  the  room,  or 
to  cool  it  when  it  has  become  too  warm,  not  TO  VENTILATE  IT.  Ventila- 
tion, by  opening  a  door  or  raising  the  windows,  is  imperfect,  and  fre- 
quently injurious.  A  more  effectual  and  safer  method  of  ventilation,  is 
to  lower  the  upper  sash  of  the  windows,  or,  in  very  cold  or  stormy 
weather,  to  open  a  ventilator  in  the  ceiling,  and  allow  the  vitiated  air  to 
escape  into  the  attic.  In  this  case,  there  should  be  a  free  communication 
between  the  attic  and  the  outer  air,  by  means  of  a  lattice  window,  or 
otherwise.  A  ventilator  may  be  constructed  in  connection  with  the 
chimney,  by  carrying  up  a  partition  in  the  middle.  One  half  the  chim- 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AS  THEY  ARE.  41 

ney,  in  this  case,  may  be  used  for  a  smoke  flue,  and  tne  other  half  for  a 
ventilator. 

There  are  few  school-houses  the  internal  construction  of  which  is  in  all 
respects  alike  ;  yet,  by  far  the  majority  of  them  will  rank  in  one  of  the 
three  following  classes : 

1.  The  first  class  embraces  those  which  are  constructed  with  one  or 
two  tiers  of  desks  along  each  side  of  the  house,  and  across  one  end  of  it ; 
the  outer  seat  having  the  wall  of  the  house  for  its  back,  and  the  front  of 
each  tier  of  desks  constituting  the  back  to  the  next  inner  seat.     There  is 
usually  an  alley  on  each  side  of  the  house  and  at  the  end  of  it,  leaving 
the  seats  of  sufficient  length  to  accommodate  from  five  to  eight  scholars. 
Those  sitting  next  the  alleys  can  pass  to  and  from  their  seats  without 
discommoding  others.     All  the  rest,  (usually  not  less  than  three-fourths 
the  entire  number.)  disturb  from  one  to  five  or  six  scholars  every  time 
they  pass  to  or  from  their  seats ;  unless,  (which  is  about  as  commonly 
practiced,  especially  with  the  scholars  most  distant  from  the  alleys.)  they 
climb  over  the  desks  in  front  of  them. 

Occasionally  the  desks  are  shorter,  accommodating  three  or  four  schol- 
ars; and,  sometimes,  they  are  intended  to  accommodate  two  scholars  only, 
so  that  each  of  them,  (excepting  the  outer  ones  at  the  end  desks,)  sits  ad- 
jacent to  an  alley,  and  can  pass  to  and  from  his  seat  without  disturbing 
others.  There  is  usually  a  desk,  or  table,  for  the  teacher's  use,  (or  at 
least  a  place  for  one.)  at  the  end  of  the  house  not  occupied  by  the  cross 
seats. 

2.  The  second  class  embraces  those  in  which  the  desks  extend  across 
the  house,  with  an  alley  through  the  middle  of  it  lengthwise,  and  occa- 
sionally one  around  the  outside  of  the  room.     All  the  desks  of  the  second 
class  front  the  teacher's  desk  or  table. 

3.  The  third  class  embraces  those  which  are  constructed  with  a  row  of 
desks  along  each  side  of  the  house,  and  across  one  end  of  it,  the  desks 
fronting  the  walls  of  the  house,  so  that  the  backs  of  the  scholars,  while 
sitting  at  them,  are  turned  towards  the  teacher.     In  this  class  of  houses 
there  are  usually  three  long  seats  without  backs,  just  within  the  desks. 
Sometimes  the  seats  are  joined  at  the  corners  so  as  to  continue  unbroken, 
twice  the  length  of  the  house  and  once  its  width,  a  distance  of  forty-five 
or  fifty  feet.     There  is  usually  a  second  tier  of  seats,  and  sometimes  desks 
within  them,  fronting  the  central  part  of  the  room. 

There  is  one  impropriety  in  the  construction  of  a  majority  of  school 
houses.  The  desks  are  generally  constructed  with  close  fronts  extend 
ing  to  the  floor,  whereby  a  free  circulation  of  air,  and  consequent  equili- 
brium of  temperature,  are  interrupted,  which  would  take  place  were  the 
seats  and  desks  so  arranged  as  to  allow  suitable  channels  of  communica- 
tion. The  scholars  behind  the  desks  are  necessarily  troubled  with  cold 
feet,  unless  the  room  is  kept  too  warm.  Were  this  evil  removed,  the 
first  class,  with  short  desks,  would  constitute  a  very  comfortable  and  con- 
venient arrangement,  except  from  the  circumstance  that  the  children  are 
placed  opposite  each  other,  which  is  a  serious  evil,  especially  where  both 
sexes  are  in  the  same  room,  as  is  the  case  in  nearly  all  of  our  common 
schools. 

Another  objection  to  long  desks,  is  the  inconvenience  to  which  the 
scholars  are  subjected  in  passing  to  and  from  their  seats.  This  objection 
exists  to  a  considerable  extent  in  the  second  class  of  houses,  especially 
where  there  is  not  an  alley  around  the  outside  of  the  room.  Were  it  not 
for  this  inconvenience, — which  might  be  obviated  by  introducing  a  greater 
number  of  alleys  and  shortening  the  desks,  so  as  to  accommodate  but  two 
scholars,  each  of  whom  would  sit  adjacent  to  an  alley,  and  could  pass  to 
and  from  his  seat  without  disturbing  others — the  second  would,  in  my 
Judgment  constitute  the  preferable  plan.  All  the  scholars  should  faca 


42  SCHOOL-HOUSES  AS  THEY  ARE. 

the  teacher,  but  none  of  them  should  face  each  other.  This  is  particu- 
larly important  where  both  sexes  attend  the  same  school. 

And  what  shall  I  say  of  the  third  class? — I  can  readily  enumerate 
some  of  its  inconveniences,  but  its  real  advantages  are,  in  my  opinion, 
few.  The  following  are  some  of  the  inconveniences :  1.  There  is  little 
or  no  uniformity,  usually,  in  the  position  of  the  scholars.  Some  of  them 
face  the  walls,  others  the  inner  part  of  the  room,  and  others  still  sit  astride 
the  seat.  2.  When  the  teacher  desires  the  attention  of  the  school,  a  por- 
tion of  the  scholars  must  either  turn  about,  or  sit  with  their  backs  towards 
him,  while  he  addresses  them.  3.  In  changing  their  positions  in  foul 
weather,  the  scholars  are  apt  to  muddy  the  seats,  and  the  clothes  of  those 
who  sit  adjacent  to  them.  4.  The  change  of.  position  is  frequently  em- 
barrassing to  the  girls.  5.  Front  lights  are  less  pleasant,  and  more  inju- 
rious to  the  eyes,  than  side  lights  or  back  ones  are.  6.  Sitting  on  a  plane 
seat,  without  a  back,  is  uncomfortable,  and  often  engenders  disease  of  the 
spine,  especially  in  childhood  and  youth. 

The  principal  supposed  advantage  of  this  construction  is,  I  believe,  that 
it  affords  the  teacher  a  better  opportunity  for  detecting  the  scholars  when 
engaged  in  mischief.  I  do  not  see  how  any  material  advantage  of  this 
kind  can  exist,  till  the  bodies  of  children  become  transparent. 

But  were  the  supposed  advantage  real,  it  seems  to  me  to  be  tempting 
children  to  do  wrong,  to  give  the  teacher  an  opportunity  of  displaying  his 
skill  in  detecting  them.  When  children  cannot  see  their  teacher,  they 
frequently  think  he  cannot  see  them,  and  conduct  accordingly. 

There  are  several  inconveniences  not  yet  specified,  existing  to  a  less 
or  greater  extent,  in  each  of  the  three  classes  of  houses  I  have  described. 

1.  The  height  of  the  seats,  although  sometimes  adjusted  with  great 
care,  is  frequently  determined  without  any  apparent  regard  to  the  size 
and  comfort  of  the  scholars  who  are  to  occupy  them.     1  have  visited 
many  schools  in  which  the  majority  of  the  scholars  reverse  the  ordinary 
practice  of  standing  up  and  sitting  'dtrxn.     They  literally  sit  up  and  stand 
down,  their  heads  being  higher  while  sitting  than  when  standing. 

2.  The  desks,  with  their  close  fronts,  are  frequently  several  inches  too 
high.     I  have  visited  many  schools  in  which  all  that  could  be  seen  of  a 
majority  of  the  scholars  occupying  the  back  seats,  was  a  part  of  their 
heads,  and  that,  too,  when  they  sat  erect  upon  their  seats.     The  desks, 
moreover,  are  frequently  inclined  twenty-five  or  thirty  degrees,  so  that  a 
book  laid  upon  them  immediately  slides  off.     An  inclination  of  one  inch 
to  the  foot  will  be  found  more  convenient  than  greater  obliquity.     A 
space  of  three  inches  on  the  most  distant  portion  of  the  desk,  should  be 
left  horizontal,  for  inkstands,  pencils,  pens,  etc. 

3.  The  floor  is  sometimes  considerably  inclined,  for  the  purpose,  I  sup- 
pose, of  giving  the  teacher  a  better  opportunity  of  seeing  the  more  dis- 
tant scholars.     The  whole  school  is  not  only  subjected  to  the  inconven- 
ience of  walking  up  and  down  an  inclined  plane,  but  what  is  much  worse, 
when  scholars  sit  upon  their  seats,  and  rest  their  feet  upon  the  floor, 
when  within  reach,  they  are  constantly  sliding  from  under  them. 

School-houses  are  not  generally  furnished  with  suitable  conveniences 
for  disposing  of  the  loose  wearing  apparel  of  the  scholars,  their  dinners, 
etc.  There  are  sometimes  a  few  nails  or  shelves,  in  a  common  entry, 
through  which  all  the  scholars  pass,  upon  which  a  portion  of  their  clothes 
may  be  hung  or  laid,  and  where  dinners  may  be  deposited.  But  in  such 
cases,  the  outside  door  is  usually  left  open,  the  rain  and  snow  beat  in,  and 
the  scholars,  in  haste  to  get  their  own  clothes,  frequently  pull  down  as 
many  more,  which  are  trampled  under  foot.  Moreover,  the  dinners  are 
frozen,  and  not  unfrequently  they  are  devoured  by  dogs,  and  even  by  the 
hogs  that  run  in  the  street.  But  the  majority  of  school-houses  are  not 
furnished  with  an  entry ;  and  where  there  is  one,  frequently  not  even  a 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  AS  THEY  ARE.  43 

nail  can  be  found  in  it,  upon  which  a  single  article  of  clothing  may  be 
hung.  Neither  are  there  nails  or  shelves  for  this  purpose  within  the 
school-room.  Scholars  generally  are  obliged  to  throw  their  clothes 
across  the  desks,  upon  the  seats,  or  into  the  windows. 

School-houses  are  generally  warmed  by  means  of  stoves,  some  of 
which  are  in  a  good  condition,  and  supplied  with  dry  wood  from  the  wood- 
house.  The  instances,  however,  in  which  such  facilities  for  warming 
exist,  are  comparatively  few.  1 1  is  much  more  common  to  see  cracked 
and  broken  stoves,  the  doors  without  either  hinges  or  latch,  and  rusty  pipe 
of  various  sizes.  Green  wood,  and  that  which  is  old  and  partly  decayed, 
either  drenched  with  rain  or  covered  writh  snow,  is  much  more  frequently 
used  for  fuel,  than  sound,  seasoned  wood,  protected  from  the  weather  by 
a  suitable  wood-house.  With  this  state  of  things,  it  is  difficult  to  kindle 
a  fire,  which  burns  poorly,  at  best,  when  kindled.  The  room  is  filled 
with  smoke  a  considerable  part  of  the  time,  especially  in  stormy  weather. 
The  school  is  frequently  interrupted  two  or  three  times  a  day,  to  fasten 
together  and  tie  up  the  stove  pipe.  This  may  seem  a  little  like  exagger- 
ation. I  know  there  are  many  exceptions.  But  in  a  majority  of  in- 
stances some  of  these  inconveniences  exist,  and  the  most  of  them  are 
united  in  more  cases  than  people  are  aware  of.  I  have  heard  trustees 


really  our  stove  is  getting  dangerous,"  etc.     And  some  of  the  boys  have 
relieved  the  embarrassment  of  their  parents  by  saying,  "  It  don't  smoke 


near  as  bad  to-day  as  it  does  sometimes." 

The  principal  reason  why  the  stoves  in  our  school-houses  are  so  cracked 
and  broken,  and  why  the  pipes  are  so  rusty  and  open,  lies  in  the  circum- 
stance that  gi^een  wood  from  the  snow  bank,  is  used  for  fuel,  instead  of 
dry  wood  from  the  wood-house.  There  are  at  least  three  reasons  why 
this  is  poor  policy. 

1.  It  takes  at  least  double  the  amount  of  wood.     A  considerable  portion 
of  the  otherwise  sensible  heat  becomes  latent  in  the  conversion  of  ice, 
snow  and  moisture  into  steam. 

2.  The  steam  thus  generated  cracks  the  stove  and  rusts  the  pipe,  so 
that  they  will  not  last  one  half  as  long  as  though  dry  wTood  from  the  wood- 
house  were  used.     And, 

3.  It  is  impossible  to  preserve  an  even  temperature.     Sometimes  it  is 
too  cold,  and  at  other  times  it  is  too  warm.     Several  teachers  have  in- 
formed me  that  in  order  to  keep  their  fires  from  going  out,  it  was  neces- 
sary to  have  their  stoves  constantly  full  of  wood,  that  a  portion  of  it 
might  be  seasoning  while  the  rest  was  burning.     Moreover,  very  offen- 
sive and  injurious  gases  are  generated  in  this  manner. 

There  are,  perhaps,  in  the  majority  of  school-houses,  a  pail  for  water, 
cup,  and  broom,  and  a. chair  for  the  teacher.  Some  one  or  more  of  these 
are  frequently  wanting.  I  need  hardl/  say  every  school-house  should  be 
supplied  with  them  all.  In  addition  to  these,  every  school-house  should 
be  furnished  with  the  following  articles : — 1.  An  evaporating  dish  for  the 
stove,  which  should  be  supplied  with  clean  pure  water.  2.  A  thermom- 
eter, by  which  the  temperature  of  the  room  may  be  regulated.  3.  A 
clock,  by  which  the  time  of  beginning  and  closing  school,  and  conducting 
all  its  exercises,  may  be  governed.  4.  A  shovel  and  tongs.  5.  An  ash- 
pail  and  ash-house.  For  want  of  these,  much  filth  is  frequently  suffered 
to  accumulate  in  and  about  the  school-house,  and  not  unfrequently  the 
house  itself  takes  fire  and  burns  down.  6.  A  wood-house,  well  supplied 
with  seasoned  wood.  •  7.  A  well,  with  provisions  not  only  for  drinking, 
but  for  the  cleanliness  of  pupils.  8.  At  last,  though  not  least,  in  this  con- 
nection, two  privies,  in  the  rear  of  the  school-house,  separated  by  a  high 


44  SCHOOL-HOUSES  AS  THEY  ARE. 

close  fence,  one  for  the  boys  and  the  other  for  the  girls.  For  want  o, 
these  indispensable  appendages  of  civilization,  the  delicacy  of  children 
is  frequently  offended,  and  their  morals  corrupted.  Nay,  more,  the  un 
natural  detention  of  the/ceces,  when  nature  calls  for  an  evacuation,  is  fre- 
quently the  foundation  for  chronic  diseases,  and  the  principal  cause  of 
permanent  ill  health,  resulting  not  unfrequently  in  premature  death. 

In  architectural  appearance,  school-houses  have  more  resembled  barns, 
sheds  for  cattle,  or  mechanic  shops,  than  Temples  of  Science, — windows 
are  broken — benches  are  mutilated — desks  are  cut  up — wood  is  unpro- 
vided— out  buildings  are  neglected — obscene  images  and  vulgar  deline- 
ations meet  the  eye  without  and  within — the  plastering  is  smoked  and 
patched — the  roof  is  so  open  as  to  let  in  a  flood  of  water  in  a  storm,  suffi- 
cient to  drown  out  a  school,  were  not  the  floor  equally  open." 

We  close  this  mass  of  testimony  as  to  the  deplorable  condition  of 
the  common,  or  public  school-houses  in  States  where  public  instruc- 
tion has  received  the  most  attention,  with  an  extract  from  a  "Report 
on  School-houses  published  by  order  of  the  Directors  of  the  Essex 
County  Teachers'  Association  in  1833." 

"  There  is  one  subject  more  to  which  we  must  be  permitted  to  refer. 
One  in  which  the  morals  of  the  young  are  intimately  connected,  one  in 
which  parents,  instructors,  and  scholars,  should  unite  their  efforts  to  pro- 
duce a  reform :  there  should  be  nothing  in  or  about  school-houses,  calcu- 
lated to  defile  the  mind,  corrupt  the  heart,  or  excite  unholy  and  forbidden 
appetites ;  yet  considering  the  various  character  of  those  brought  together 
in  our  public  schools,  and  considering  also  how  inventive  are  corrupt 
minds,  in  exhibiting  openly  the  defilement  which  reigns  within,  we  do  not 
know  but  we  must  expect  that  school-houses,  as  well  as  other  public 
buildings,  and  even  fences,  will  continue  to  bear  occasional  marks  both  of 
lust  and  profaneness.  But  we  must  confess  that  the  general  apathy 
which  apparently  exists  on  this  subject,  does  appear  strange  to  us.  It  is 
a  humbling  fact,  that  in  many  of  these  houses,  there  are  highly  indecent, 
profane,  and  libidinous  marks,  images  and  expressions,  some  of  which  are 
spread  out  in  broad  characters  on  the  walls,  where  they  unavoidably 
meet  the  eyes  of  all  who  come  into  the  house,  or  being  on  the  outside, 
salute  the  traveler  as  he  passes  by,  wounding  the  delicate,  and  annoying 
the  moral  sensibilities  of  the  heart.  While  there  is  still  a  much  greater 
number  in  smaller  character,  upon  the  tables  and  seats  of  the  students, 
and  even  in  some  instances,  of  the  instructors,  constantly  before  the  eyes 
of  those  who  happen  to  occupy  them.  How  contaminating  these  must 
be,  no  one  can  be  entirely  insensible.  And  yet  how  unalarmed,  or  if  not 
entirely  unalarmed,  how  little  is  the  mind  of  community  directed  to  the 
subject,  and  how  little  effort  put  forth  to  stay  this  fountain  of  corruption. 
We  will  mention  as  evidence  of  the  public  apathy,  one  house  which  we 
suppose  is  this  day,  it  certainly  was  a  few  months  since,  defiled  by  images 
and  expressions  of  the  kind  referred  to,  spread  out  in  open  observation 
upon  its  walls,  which  are  known  to  have  been  there  for  eight  or  ten 
years.  In  this  building  during  all  this  time,  the  summer  and  winter 
schools  have  been  kept ;  here  the  district  have  held  their  business  meet- 
ings; here  frequently  has  been  the  singing-school;  here,  too,  religious 
meetings  have  often  been  held ;  here,  too,  the  school  committee,  the  fathers, 
mothers,  and  friends  of  the  children,  have  come  to  witness  the  progress 
of  their  children  in  knowledge  and  virtue ;  all  of  whom  must  have  wit- 
nessed, and  been  ashamed  of  their  defilement  and  yet  no  effectual  effort 
has  been  put  forth  to  remove  them. 


THE  DISTRICT  SCHOOL-HOUSE  AS  FT  IS. 


45 


The  Mowing  views  are  engraved  from  " 

district    schooftouses  in    ConnecUeut as     «y  «  ^^  a  ^        k 

not  tanght,  bu       *&*%£,*  years  wbich  go  back  beyond  the 
"ofil^X^^^Se:  attractive  without,  or  con, 

venient  within. 


II.    GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

1.  A  location,  healthy,  accessible  from  all  parts  of  the  district; 
retired   from    the  dust,   noise,    and    danger   of  the   highway;    at- 
tractive, from  its  choice  of  sun  and  shade,  and  commanding,  in  one 
or  more  directions,  the  cheap,  yet  priceless  educating  influences  of 
fine  scenery. 

2.  A  site  large  enough  to  admit  of  a  yard  in  front  of  the  building, 
either  common  to  the  whole  school  or  appropriated  to  greensward, 
flowers  and  shrubbery,  and  two  yards  in  the  rear,  one  for  each  sex, 
properly  inclosed,  and  fitted  up  with  rotary  swings,  and  other  means 
of  recreation  and  exercise,  and  with  privies,  which  a  civilized  people 
never  neglect. 

3.  Separate  entrances  to  the  school-room  for  each  sex ;  each  en- 
trance distinct  from  the  front  door,  and  fitted  up  with  scraper,  mats, 
and  old  broom  for  the  feet ;  with  hooks,  shelves,  &c.,  for  hats,  over- 
coats, over-shoes,  and  umbrellas  ;  with  sink,  pump,  basin  and  towels, 
and  with    brooms    and    duster,  and  all  the  means  and  appliances 
necessary  to  secure  habits  of  order,  neatness  and  cleanliness. 

4.  School-room,  in  addition  to  the  space  required  by  aisles  and 
the  teacher's  platform,  sufficient  to  accommodate  with  a  seat  and 
desk,  not  only  each  scholar  in  the  district  who  is  in  the  habit  of  at- 
tending school,  but  all  who  may  be  entitled  to  attend ;  with  verge 
enough  to  receive  the  children  of  industrious,  thoughtful,  and  reli- 
gious families,  who  are  sure  to  be  attracted  to  a  district  which  is 
blessed  with  a  good  school-house  and  a  good  school. 

5.  At  least  one  spare  room  for  recitation,  library,  and  other  uses, 
to  every  school-room,  no  matter  how  small  the  school  may  be. 

6.  An  arrangement  of  the  windows,  so  as  to  secure  one  blank  wall, 
and  at  the  same  time,  the  cheerfulness  and  warmth  of  the  sunlight,  at 
all  times  of  the  day,  with  arrangements  to  modify  the  same  by  blinds, 
shutters,  or  curtains. 

7.  Apparatus  for  warming,  by  which  a  large  quantity  of  pure  air 
from  outside  of  the  building  can  be  moderately  heated,  and  intro- 
duced into  the  room  without  passing  over  a  red-hot  iron  surface,  and 
distributed  equally  to  different  parts  of  the  room. 

8.  A  cheap,  simple,  and  efficient  mode  of  ventilation,  by  which 
the  air  in  every  part  of  a  school-room,  which  is  constantly  becoming 
vitiated  by  respiration,  combustion,  or  other  causes,  maybe  constantly 
flowing  out  of  the  room,  and  its  place  filled  by  an  adequate  supply  of 
fresh  air  drawn  from  a  pure  source,  and  admitted  into  the  room  at 
the  right  temperature,  of  the  requisite  degree  of  moisture,  and  without 
any  perceptible  current. 

9.  A  desk  with  at  least  two  feet  of  top  surface,  and  in  no  case  for 
more  than  two  pupils,  inclined  towards  the  front  edge  one  inch  in  a 
foot,  except  two  to  three  inches  of  the  most  distant  portion,  which 
should  be  level,  and  covered  with  cloth  to  prevent  noise — fitted  with 
an  ink-pot  (supplied  with  a  lid  and  a  peri-wiper,)  and  a  slate,  with  a 
pencil-holder  and  a  sponge  attached,  and  supported  by  end-pieces  or 


43  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

stanchions,  curved  so  as  to  be  convenient  for  sweeping,  and  to  admit  of 
easy  access  to  the  seat — these  of  varying  heights  for  small  and 
iarge  pupils,  the  front  edge  of  each  desk  being  from  seven  to  nine 
inches  (seven  for  the  lowest  and  nine  for  the  highest,)  higher  than 
the  front  edge  of  the  seat  or  chair  attached. 

10.  A  chair  or  bench  for  each  pupil,  and  in  no  case  for  more  than 
two,  unless  separated  by  an  aisle,  with  a  seat  hollowed  like  an  ordi- 
nary chair,  and  varying  in  height  from  ten  to  seventeen  inches  from 
the  outer  edge  to  the  floor,  so  that  each  pupil,  when  properly  seated, 
can  rest  his  feet  on  the  floor  without  the  muscles  of  the  thigh  press- 
ing hard  upon  the  front  edge  of  the  seat,  and  with  a  support  for  the 
muscles  of  the  back,  rising  above  the  shoulder-blades. 

11.  An  arrangement  of  the  seats  and  desks,  so  as  to  allow  of  an 
aisle  or  free  passage  of  at  least  two  feet  around  the  room,  and  be- 
tween each  range  of  seats  for  two  scholars,  and  so  as  to  bring  each 
scholar  under  the  supervision  of  the  teacher. 

12.  Arrangements  for  the  teacher,  such  as  a  separate  closet  for 
his  overcoat,  &c.,a  desk  for  his  papers,  a  library  of  books  of  reference, 
maps,  apparatus,  and  all  such  instrumentalities  by  which  his  capa- 
cities for  instruction  may  be  made  in  the  highest  degree  useful. 

13.  Accommodations  for  a  school  library  for  consultation  and  cir- 
culation among  the  pupils,  both  at  school  arid  as  a  means  of  carrying 
on  the  work  of  self-education  at  their  homes,  in  the  field,  or  the  work- 
shop, after  they  have  left  school. 

14.  A  design  in  good  taste  and  fit  proportion,  in  pkce  of  the 
wretched  perversions  of  architecture,  which  almost  universally  char- 
acterize the  district  school-houses  of  New  England. 

15.  While  making  suitable  accommodation  for  the  school,  it  will  be 
a  wise,  and,  all  things  considered,  an  economical  investment,  on  the 
part  of  many  districts,  to  provide  apartments  in  the  same  building,  or 
in  its  neighborhood,  for  the  teacher  and  his  family.    This  arrangement 
will  give  character  and  permanence  to  the  office  of  teaching,  and  at 
the  same  time  secure  better  supervision  for  the  school-house  and 
premises,  and  more  attention  to  the  manners  of  the  pupils  out  of 
school.     Provision  for  the   residence  of  the  teacher,  and  not  un- 
frequently  a  garden  for  his  cultivation,  is  made  in  connection  with  the 
parochial  schools  in  Scotland,  and  with  the  first  class  of  public  schools 
in  Germany. 

1 6.  Whenever  practicable,  the  privies  should  be  disconnected  from 
the  play-ground,  and  be  approached  from  a  covered  walk.     Perfect 
seclusion,  neatness  and  propriety  should  be  strictly  observed  in  re- 
lation to  them. 

17.  A  shed,  or  covered  walk,  or  the  basement  story  paved  under 
feet,  and  open  for  free  circulation  of  air  for  the  boys,  and  an  upper 
room  with  the  floor  deafened  and  properly  supported  for  calisthenic 
exercises  for  the  girls,  is  a  desirable  appendage  to  every  school. 


HI.    PLANS  OF  SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

In  determining  the  details  of  construction  and  arrangement  for  a 
school-house,  due  regard  must,  of  course,  be  had  to  the  varying  cir- 
cumstances of  country  and  city,  of  a  large  and  a  small  number  of 
scholars,  of  schools  of  different  grades,  and  of  different  systems  of 
instruction. 

1.  In  by  far  the  largest  number  of  country  districts  as  they  are 
now  situated,  there  will  be  but  one  school-room,  with  a  smaller  room 
for  recitations  and  other  purposes  needed.  This  must  be.  arranged 
and  fitted  up  for  scholars  of  all  ages,  for  the  varying  circumstances  of 
a  summer  and  of  a  winter  school,  and  for  other  purposes,  religious 
and  secular,  than  those  of  a  school,  and  in  every  particular  of  con- 
struction and  arrangement,  the  closest  economy  of  material  and  labor 
must  be  studied.  A  union  of  two  or  more  districts  for  the  purpose  of 
maintaining  in  each  a  school  for  the  younger  children,  and  in  the 
center  of  the  associated  districts  a  school  for  the  older  children  of  all 
or,  what  would  be  better,  a  consolidation  of  two  or  more  districts  into 
one,  for  these  and  all  other  school  purposes,  would  do  away  with  the 
almost  insuperable  difficulties  which  now  exist  in  country  districts, 
in  the  way  of  comfortable  and  attractive  school-houses,  as  well  as  of 
thoroughly  governed  and  instructed  schools. 

2.  In  small  villages,  or  populous  country  districts,  at  least  two 
school-rooms  should  be  provided,  and  as  there  will  be  other  places  for 
public  meetings  of  various  kinds,  each  room  should  be  appropriated 
and    fitted  up   exclusively  for  the  use  of  the  younger  or  the  older 
pupils.     It  is  better,  on  many  accounts,   to  have  two  schools  on  the 
same  floor,  than  one  above  the  other. 

3.  In  large  villages  and  cities,  a  better  classification  of  the  schools 
can  be  adopted,  and,   of  course,  more  completeness  can  be  given  to 
the  construction  and  arrangement  of  the  buildings  and  rooms  appro- 
priated to  each  grade  of  schools.     This  classification  should  embrace 
at  least  three  grades — viz.  Primary,  with  an  infant  department ;  Sec- 
ondary, or  Grammar  ;  Superior,  or  High  Schools.     In  manufacturing 
villages,  and  in   certain  sections  of  large  cities,  regularly  organized 
Infant  Schools  should  be  established  and  devoted  mainly  to  the  cul- 
ture  of  the   morals,  manners,  language  and  health  of  very  young 
children. 

4.  The  arrangement  as  to  supervision,  instruction  and  recitations, 
must  have  reference  to  the  size  of  the  school ;  the  number  of  teachers 
and  assistants  ;  the  general   organization  of  the  school,  whether  in 
one  room  for  study,   and  separate  class  rooms  for  recitation,  or  the 
several  classes   in   distinct  rooms   under  appropriate  teachers,  each 
teacher  having  specified  studies  ;  and  the  method  of  instruction  pur- 
sued, whether  the  mutual,  simultaneous,  or  mixed. 

Since  the  year  1830,  and  especially  since  1838,  much  ingenuity 
has  been  expended  by  practical  teachers  and  architects,  in  devising 
and  perfecting  plans  of  school-houses,  with  all  the  details  of  con- 
struction and  fixtures,  modified  to  suit  the  varied  circumstances  enu- 
merated above,  specimens  of  which,  with  explanations  and  descrip- 
tions, will  be  here  given. 


50  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


PLANS  OF  SCHOOL-HOUSES  WITH  ONE  SCHOOL-ROOM. 

THE  largest  number  of  school-houses  v'hich  are  erected  with  but 
one  school-room,  are  intended  for  District,  or  for  Primary  Schools. 

DISTRICT  SCHOOL. 

By  a  District  School,  in  this  connection,  is  understood  a  public 
school  open  to  all  the  children  of  the  district,  of  both  sexes,  and  of 
the  school  age  recognized  by  the  practice  of  the  district,  or  the  regu- 
lations of  the  school  committee  of  the  town  to  which  such  district 
belongs.  It  is  an  unclassified  school,  and  is  taught  in  one  apartment, 
by  one  teacher,  usually  without  any  assistance  even  from  older  pupils 
of  the  school.  It  varies  in  the  character  of  its  scholars,  and  its 
methods  of  instruction,  from  summer  to  winter,  and  from  winter  to 
summer.  In  summer,  the  younger  children  and  classes  in  the  ele- 
mentary studies  predominate,  and  in  the  winter  the  older  pupils,  and 
classes  in  the  more  advanced  studies,  whilst  some  of  both  extremes, 
as  to  age  and  studies,  are  to  be  found  in  both  the  winter  and  summer 
session  of  the  district  school.  This  variety  of  ages  and  studies,  and 
consequent  variety  of  classes,  increased  by  the  irregularity  of  at- 
tendance, is  not  only  a  serious  hinderance  to  the  proper  arrangement, 
instruction  and  government  of  the  school,  but  presents  almost  insu- 
perable obstacles  to  the  appropriate  construction  and  furniture  of  the 
school-house,  which  is  too  often  erected  on  the  smallest  possible 
scale  of  size  and  expense.  A  vast  amount  of  physical  suffering  and 
discomfort  to  the  pupils  is  the  necessary  result  of  crowding  the  older 
and  younger  pupils  into  a  small  apartment,  without  seats  and  furniture 
appropriate  to  either,  and  especially  when  no  precaution  has  been 
taken  to  adapt  the  supply  and  arrangements  of  seats  and  desks  ac- 
cording to  the  varying  circumstances  of  the  same  school  in  winter 
and  summer.  In  every  district,  or  unclassified  school,  the  school- 
room should  be  fitted  up  with  seats  and  desks  for  the  older  and 
younger  pupils,  sufficient  to  accommodate  the  maximum  attendance  of 
each  class  of  scholars  at  any  season  of  the  year.  And  if  this  cannot 
be  effected,  and  only  a  sufficient  number  of  seats  can  be  secured  to 
accommodate  the  highest  number  of  both  sexes  in  attendance  at  any 
one  time,  then  in  winter  the  seats  arid  desks  for  the  smaller  children 
should  be  removed  to  the  attic,  and  their  place  supplied  by  additional 
seats  and  desks  for  the  older  pupils ;  and  in  summer  this  arrange- 
ment should  be  reversed. 


PRIMARY  SCHOOLS. 

By  a  Primary  School,  in  our  American  School  Systems,  is  under- 
stood, not  generally  an  Elementary  School,  embracing  a  course  of 
instruction  for  the  great  mass  of  the  children  of  the  community 


PRIMARY  SCHOOLS  5! 

under  fourteen  years  of  age — but  specifically,  that  class  or  grade  of 
schools  which  receive  only  the  youngest  pupils,  and  those  least 
advanced  in  their  studies. 

Any  scheme  of  school  organization  will  be  imperfect  which  does 
not  include  special  arrangements  for  the  systematic  training  and  in- 
struction of  very  young  children,  especially  in  all  cities,  manufactur- 
ing villages,  and  large  neighborhoods.  Among  the  population  of 
such  places,  many  parents  are  sure  to  be  found,  who,  for  want  of 
intelligence  or  leisure,  of  constancy  and  patience,  are  unfitted  to 
watch  the  first  blossoming  of  the  souls  of  their  children,  and  to  train 
them  to  good  physical  habits,  virtuous  impulses,  and  quick  and  accu- 
rate observations  ;  to  cleanliness,  obedience,  openness,  mutual  kind- 
liness, piety,  and  all  the  virtues  which  wise  and  far-seeing  parents 
desire  for  their  offspring.  The  general  result  of  the  home  training 
of  the  children  of  such  parents,  is  the  neglect  of  all  moral  culture 
when  such  culture  is  most  valuable  ;  and  the  acquisition  of  manners, 
personal  habits,  and  language,  which  the  best  school  training  at  a 
later  period  of  life  can  with  difficulty  correct  or  eradicate.  To  meet 
the  wants  of  this  class  of  children,  Halls  of  Refuge  and  Infant 
Schools  were  originally  instituted  by  Oberlin,  Owen,  and  Wilderspin, 
and  now  constitute  under  these  names,  or  the  names  of  Primary 
Schools,  or  Primary  Departments,  a  most  important  branch  of  ele- 
mentary education,  whether  sustained  by  individual  charity,  or  as 
part  of  the  organization  of  public  instruction. 

No  one  at  all  acquainted  with  the  history  of  education  in  this 
country,  can  doubt  that  the  establishment  of  the  Primary  School  for 
children  under  six  years  of  age,  in  Boston,  in  1818,  as  a  distinct 
grade  ol  schools,  with  the  modifications  which  it  has  since  re- 
ceived there,  and  elsewhere,  from  the  principles  and  methods  of 
the  Infant  School  system,  has  led  to  most  important  improvements  in 
the  quality  and  quantity  of  instruction  in  our  public  schools,  and  the 
sooner  a  Primary  School  properly  organized,  furnished  and  man- 
aged, can  be  established  in  every  large  neighborhood,  and  especially 
in  the  "  infected  districts"  of  cities  and  manufacturing  villages,  the 
more  rapid  and  more  thorough  will  be  the  progress  of  education. 

LOCATION,  YARD,  AND  PLAY  GROUND. 

The  site  or  location  of  a  school-house  should  be  quiet,  retired, 
accessible,  attractive,  and  in  all  respects  healthy.  To  secure  these 
conditions,  no  reasonable  expense  should  be  spared — for  a  house 
thus  situated  promotes  in  many  ways  the  highest  objects  for  which 
a  school  is  instituted. 

Noisy  and  dusty  thoroughfares,  and  the  vicinity  of  places  of  idle 
and  vicious  resort,  as  well  as  bleak  plains,  unsheltered  hill  tops, 
and  stagnant  marshes,  should  all  be  avoided,  no  matter  how  cen- 
tral, accessible,  or  cheap  the  land  may  be. 

In  a  city  or  village,  a  rear  lot,  with  access  from  two  or  more 
streets,  will  not  only  be  more  economical,  quiet  and  safe,  but  will 
secure,  at  the  same  cost  as  a  narrow  front  lot,  the  advantages  of  a 
spacious  play  ground,  and  admit  of  the  adornments  of  flower  plats, 
shrubbery,  and  trees. 


52  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

In  the  country,  and  in  small  villages,  there  will  be  no  difficulty, 
to  a  liberal  and  enlightened  community  or  committee,  in  procuring 
a  spacious  lot,  attractive  from  its  choice  of  sun  and  shade,  of  trees 
and  flowers,  and  commanding,  in  one  or  more  directions,  the  cheap 
yet  priceless  educating  influences  of  fine  scenery. 

In  city  or  country,  a  site  should  be  provided,  large  enough  to 
admit  of  a  yard  in  front  of  the  building,  either  common  to  the 
whole  school,  or  appropriated  to  greensward,  flowers,  and  shrub- 
bery, and  two  yards  in  the  rear,  one  for  each  sex.  properly  graded, 
inclosed,  and  fitted  up  with  apparatus  for  recreation  and  exercise 
in  all  states  of  the  weather,  and  with  privies,  which  a  civilized  people 
never  forgets,  and  in  respect  to  which  the  most  perfect  seclusion, 
neatness,  and  propriety  should  be  enforced. 

The  extent  to  which  facilities  for  gymnastic  and  calisthenic  ex- 
ercises shall  be  introduced  into  the  play-ground,  must  be  deter- 
mined by  the  circumstances  of  the  school,  and  mainly  by  the  place 
which  they  are  to  occupy  as  part  of  the  physical  education  of  the 
pupils.  For  purposes  of  recreation,  except  in  the  simplest  and 
cheapest  form,  and  for  very  young  children,  and  at  all  times  under 
the  direction  and  supervision  of  the  teacher,  who  should  be  spe- 
cially trained  to  superintend  the  exercises  and  amusements  of  the 
play  ground,  this  apparatus  has  not  much  value.  When  pursued 
at  all  times,  without  system,  without  reference  to  age,  or  strength, 
or  the  purposes  intended,  without  direction,  from  day  to  day  for  a 
whole  term,  the  exercises  become  wearisome,  the  apparatus  is 
abused,  and  serious  accidents  not  ^infrequently  occur.  But  when 
gymnastics  can  be  taught  and  practiced  as  a  regular  branch  of 
education — when  the  more  difficult  fetes  of  activity,  strength,  and 
endurance,  are  attained  by  elementary  trials  of  various  sorts,  gradu- 
ated to  the  age  and  constitution  of  each  pupil,  and  so  alternated 
as  to  keep  the  interest  constantly  alive — when  walking  exercises 
in  the  field,  or  to  remarkable  places,  and  even  ordinary  spots,  are 
occasionally  substituted  for  the  military  drill,  and  running,  leaping, 
vaulting,  balancing,  climbing,  and  lifting,  in  the  gymnasium — 
when  the  incidental  acquisition  of  the  moral  habits  of  cleanliness 
in  person,  neatness  in  dress,  punctuality,  promptitude,  and  obedi- 
ence, is  made  a  matter  of  even  greater  importance  than  the  direct 
result  of  muscular  development,  an  erect  and  graceful  carriage,  a 
firm  and  regular  step,  which  are  the  direct  objects  of  these  exer- 
cises— then,  they  are  truly  valuable,  and  every  facility  for  their  in- 
troduction should  be  provided  in  the  play  ground.  Whenever  in- 
troduced, the  machines  and  instruments  should  be  constructed  of 
the  best  material  and  by  the  best  workmen,  for  life  and  limb  must 
not  be  endangered  to  save  expense  in  these  respects. 

The  following  cuts  and  description  may  be  useful  to  an  ingeni- 
ous carpenter,  who  can  not  consult  a  systematic  treatise  on  gym- 
nastics.* The  cut  which  follows,  of  a  play-ground  for  an  infant, 
or  primary  school,  is  copied  from  Wilderspin's  Early  Education. 
We  should  prefer  to  see  a  female  teacher  presiding  over  the  scene. 

*  See  INSTRUCTIONS  IN  GYMNASTICS,  containing  a  full  description  of  more  than  eight  hun- 
dred exercises,  and  illustrated  by  five  hundred  engravings,  By  J.  E.  I)'Alfonce,  late  pro- 
fessor of  Gymnastics  in  the  Military  School  in  St.  Petersburg!!,  and  in  Paris.  New  York: 
George  F.  Nesbit  &  Co.,  Wall  street.  1851. 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


The  house  should  stand  in  a  dry  and  airy  situation,  large  enough  to  allow 
a  spacious  play  ground.  No  pains  should  be  spared  on  this  principal  and  par- 
amount department  of  a  proper  infant  school.  The  more  extensive  the 
ground  may  be,  the  better  ;  but  the  smallest  size  for  200  children  ought  to  be 
100  feet  in  length,  by  at  least  60  in  breadth.  It  should  be  walled  round,  not 
so  much  to  prevent  the  children  from  straying,  as  to  exclude  intruders  upon, 
them,  while  at  play  :  for  this  purpose,  a  wall  or  close  paling,  not  lower  than 
six  feet  high,  will  be  found  sufficient.  With  the  exception  of  a  flower  border, 
from  four  to  six  feet  broad  all  round,  lay  the  whole  ground,  after  leveling  and 
draining  it  thoroughly,  with  small  binding  gravel,  which  must  be  always  kept 
in  repair,  and  well  swept  of  loose  stones.  Watch  the  gravel,  and  prevent  the 
children  making  holes  in  it  to  form  pools  in  wet  weather ;  dress  the  flower 
border,  and  keep  it  always  neat ;  stock  it  well  with  flowers  and  shrubs,  and 
make  it  as  gay  and  beautiful  as  possible.  Train  on  the  walls  cherry  and  other 
fruit  trees  and  currant  bushes ;  place  some  ornaments  and  tasteful  decora- 
tions in  different  parts  of  the  border — as  a  honeysuckle  bower,  &c.,  and  sepa- 
rate the  dressed  ground  from  the  graveled  area  by  a  border  of  strawberry 
plants,  which  may  be  protected  from  the  feet  of  the  children  by  a  skirting  of 
wood  on  the  outside,  three  inches  high,  and  painted  green,  all  round  the 
ground.  Something  even  approaching  to  elegance  in  the  dressing  and  decking 
of  the  playground,  will  afford  a  lesson  which  may  contribute  to  refinement 
and  comfort  for  life.  It  will  lead  not  only  to  clean  and  comfortable  dwellings, 
but  to  a  taste  for  decoration  and  beauty,  which  will  tend  mainly  to  expel 
coarseness,  discomfort,  dirt,  and  vice,  from  the  economy  of  the  humbler 
classes. 

For  the  excellent  and  safe  exercise  afforded  by  the  Rotary  Swing,  erect,  at 
the  distance  of  thirty  feet  from  each  other,  two  posts  or  masts,  from  sixteen 
to  eighteen  feet  high  above  the  ground  ;  nine  inches  diameter  at  the  foot,  di- 
minishing to  seven  and  a 
half  at  top ;  of  good  well- 
seasoned,  hard  timber; 
charred  with  fire,  about 
three  feet  under  ground, 
fixed  in  sleepers,  and 
bound  at  top  with  a  strong 
iron  hoop.  In  the  mid- 
dle of  the  top  of  the  post 
is  sunk  perpendicularly 
a  cylindrical  hole,  ten 
inches  deep,  and  two 
inches  in  diameter,  made 
strong  by  an  iron  ring 
two  inches  broad  within 
the  top,  and  by  apiece  of 
iron  an  inch  thick  to  fill 
up  the  bottom,  tightly 
fixed  in.  A  strong  pivot 
of  iron,  of  diameter  to 
turn  easily  in  the  socket 
described,  but  with  as 
little  lateral  play  as  pos- 
sible, is  placed  vertically 
in  the  hole,  its  upper  end 
standing  4  inches  above 
it.  On  this  pivot,  as  an 
axle,  and  close  to  the 
top  of  the  post,  but  so  as 
to  turn  easily,  is  fixed  a 
wheel  of  iron,  twenty- 
four  inches  diameter, 
strengthened  by  fonr 


Rotary  Swing. 


PLAN  FOR  INFANT  SCHOOL-HOUSE  AND  GROUNDS.  55 

spokes,  something  like  a  common  roasting-jack  wheel,  but  a  little  larger.  The 
rim  should  be  flat,  two  inches  broad,  and  half  an  inch  thick.  In  this  rim  are 
six  holes  or  eyes,  in  which  rivet  six  strong  iron  hooks,  made  to  turn  in  the 
holes,  to  prevent  the  rope  from  twisting.  To  these  hooks  are  fixed  six  well- 
chosen  ropes,  an  inch  diameter,  and  each  reaching  down  to  within  two  feet  of 
the  ground,  having  half-a-dozen  knots,  or  small  wooden  balls,  fixed  with  nails, 
a  foot  from  each  other,  beginning  at  the  lower  extremity,  and  ascending  to 
six  feet  from  the  ground.  A  tin  cap,  like  a  lamp  cover,  is  placed  on  the  top 
of  the  whole  machine,  fixed  to  the  prolongation  of  the  pivot,  and  a  little  larger 
than  the  wheel,  to  protect  it  from  wet.  To  this,  or  to  the  wheel  itself,  a  few 
waggoners'  bells  appended,  would  have  a  cheerful  effect  on  the  children. 
The  operation  of  this  swing  must,  from  the  annexed  cut,  be  obvious.  Four, 
or  even  six  children,  lay  hold  of  a  rope  each,  as  high  as  they  can  reach,  and, 
starting  at  the  same  instant,  run  a  few  steps  in  the  circle,  then  suspend  them- 
selves by  their  hands,  drop  their  feet  and  run  again  when  fresh  impulse  is 
wanted  ;  again  swing  round,  and  so  on.  A  child  of  three  or  four  years  old, 
will  often  fly  several  times  round  the  circle  without  touching  the  ground. 
There  is  not  a  muscle  in  the  body  which  is  not  thus  exercised  ;  and  to  render 
the  exercise  equal  to  both  halves  of  the  body,  it  is  important  that,  after  sever- 
al rounds  in  one  direction,  the  party  should  stop,  change  the  hands,  and  go 
round  in  the  opposite  direction.  To  prevent  fatigue,  and  to  equalize  the  ex- 
ercise among  the  pupils,  the  rule  should  be,  that  each  six  pupils  should  have 
thirty  or  forty  rounds,  and  resign  the  ropes  to  six  more,  who  have  counted 
the  rotations. 

Toys  being  discarded  as  of  no  use,  or  real  pleasure,  the  only  plaything  of 
the  playground  consists  of  bricks  for  building,  made  of  wood,  four  inches  by 
two  and  one  and  a-half.  Some  hundreds  of  these,  very  equally  made,  should 
be  kept  in  a  large  box  in  a  corner  of  the  ground,  as  the  quieter  children  delight 
to  build  houses  and  castles  with  them  ;  the  condition,  however,  always  to  be, 
that  they  shall  correctly  and  conscientiously  replace  in  the  box  the  full  com- 
plement or  tale  of  bricks  they  take  out ;  in  which  rule,  too,  there  is  more  than 
one  lesson. 

In  a  corner  of  the  playground,  concealed  by  shrubbery,  are  two  water  clos- 
ets for  the  children,  with  six  or  eight  seats  in  each  ;  that  for  the  boys  is  sepa- 
rate from,  and  entered  by,  a  different  passage  from  that  for  the  girls.  Sup- 
ply the  closets  well  with  water,  which,  from  a  cistern  at  the  upper  end,  shall 
run  along  with  a  slope  under  all  the  seats,  into  a  sewer,  or  a  pit  in  the  ground. 
See  that  the  closets  are  in  no  way  misused,  or  abused.  The  eye  of  the  teach- 
er and  mistress  should  often  be  here,  for  the  sake  both  of  cleanliness  and 
delicacy.  .Mr.  Wilderspin  recommends  the  closets  being  built  adjoining  the 
small  class-room,  with  small  apertures  for  the  teacher's  eye  in  the  class-room 
wall,  covered  with  a  spring  lid,  and  commanding  the  range  of  the  place. 
There  is  nothing  in  which  children,  especially  in  the  humbler  ranks,  require 
more  training. 

The  annexed  cut 
represents  an  infant 
school-room,  modi- 
fied in  a  few  unim- 
portant particulars, 
from  the  ground  plan 
recommended  by 
Mr.  Wilderspin  in 
his  "  Early  Educa- 
tion" published  in 
1840.  The  original 
plan  embraces  a 
dwelling  for  the 

teacher's  family,  and  two  school-rooms,  one  for  the  boys  and  the  other  for  the 
girls,  each  school  having  a  gallery,  class-room,  and  playground.  The  school- 
room is  about  60  feet  long  by  38  wide,  and  the  class-rooms  each  13  ft.  by  10. 
D.  Desks  and  Seats.  G.  Gallery,  capable  of  accommodating  100  children. 


u 


56 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


The  chief  requisites  in  an  infant-school  play-ground  are  the  following  : 
A  Climbing  Stand  ;  a  Horizontal  Bar  ;  Parallel  Bars  ;  Wooden  Swings  ;  a 
Double  Inclined  Plane. 

The  Climbing  Stand  consists  essentially 
of  a  frame- work  of  poles,  which  support  ropes 
for  climbing.  One  of  the  most  simple  and 
economical  is  made  of  two  ordinary  scaffold 
poles,  planed  smooth  and  painted,  which  sup- 
port a  transverse  beam  having  hooks,  to 
which  the  ropes  are  attached. 

The  dimensions  maybe  as  follows  :  Length 
of  perpendicular  poles,  15  feet,  of  which  4 
feet  are  sunk  in  the  ground  ;  circumference 
of  poles  at  the  surface  of  the  ground,  14 
inches ;  length  of  transverse  beam  at  top,  9 
feet.  To  this  beam  are  attached,  by  screw- 
ing in,  two  iron  hooks,  which  support  the 
ropes;  these  are  H  inches  in  diameter,  to 
afford  a  firm  grasp  to  the  hand.  In  order 
that  the  ropes  may  not  wear  through  where  attached  to  the  hooks,  they  are 
spliced  round  an  iron  ring,  which  is  grooved  on  the  outer  surface  to  give  a 
firmer  hold  to  the  rope.  Both  the  ropes  should  be  attached  to  the  bottom  of 
the  poles  so  as  to  hang  loosely  :  if  not  fastened  at  the  bottom,  the  children 
use  them  as  swings  while  clinging  to  them,  and  are  apt  to  injure  themselves  • 
by  falling,  or  others  by  coming  violently  in  contact  with  them. 

No  apparatus  is  more  advantageous  :  it  is  economical  in  its  erection,  and 
not  liable  to  get  out  of  order  ;  it  affords  exercise  to  a  number  of  children  at 
the  same  time,  a  succession  being  constantly  engaged  in  climbing  and  de- 
scending the  ropes  and  poles  ;  the  muscular  exertion  is  not  violent,  but 
decidedly  beneficial,  expanding  the  chest,  and  giving  power  and  freedom  of 
motion  to  the  arms.  This  exercise  is  also  quite  free  from  danger,  the  chil- 
dren never  advancing  higher  up  the  ropes  than  they  feel  themselves  secure. 
During  the  seven  years  the  Home  and  Colonial  Infant-school  has  been 
established,  200  children  have  been  the  average  attendance,  but  no  accidents 
have  occurred  from  the  use  of  the  climbing-stand. 

The  Horizontal  Bar  consists  of  a  wooden  bar  formed  of  beech,  red  deal, 
or  some  other  tough  wood  not  apt  to  splinter  or  warp,  about  three  inches  in 
diameter,  and  usually  six  feet  long,  turned  or  planed  round  and  smooth,  in 
order  that  the  hands  may  not  be  blistered  by  the  friction. 

Every  play-ground  should  possess  two  or  three  of  these  useful  additions  ; 
one  6  feet  from  the  ground,  another  5  feet,  and  a  third  4  feet  high, — each  one 
being  supported  and  fixed  firmly  by  a  post  at  both  ends.  Or  they  may  be 
arranged  so  that  four  posts  will  support  the  three  bars.  The  exercises  per- 
formed on  the  horizontal  bars  consist  in  the  child  remaining  suspended  by 
the  arms  and  hands  ;  in  drawing  the  body  up  so  as  to  look  over  the  bar  sev- 
eral times  in  succession  ;  in  traversing  from  one  end  of  the  bar  to  the  other 
(suspended  by  the  hands,)  both  backwards  and  forwards  ;  in  swinging  the 
body  whilst  suspended  from  the  bar. 


PLAY-GROUND  OF  INFANT  SCHOOL. 


57 


The  Parallel  Bar  consists  of  two  bars 
placed  parallel  with  one  another,  each  being 
from  6  to  8  feet  long,  4  inches  deep  by  2 
inches  wide,  with  the  corners  rounded  off. 
The  posts  that  support  these  bars  in  their  po- 
sition should  be  18  inches  apart.  The  bars 
should  project  four  inches  beyond  the  post. 
Two  sets  of  parallel  bars  are  advantageous,  one  being  2  feet  9  inches  high 
for  the  younger  children,  the  other  4  feet  high  for  the  elder. 

The  exercises  on  these  bars  consist  in  supporting  the  body  on  the  arms, 
one  hand  resting  on  each  bar,  and  by  moving  each  hand  alternately,  proceed- 
ing forwards  and  backwards  along  the  bars  ;  in  swinging  the  body  between 
the  arms  ;  and  in  springing  over  the  bar  on  each  side,  both  backwards  and 
forwards. 

The  Wooden  Springs  afford  a  kind  of  exercise  extremely  popular  with 
the  younger  children,  who  are  not  sufficiently  active  to  take  part  in  the  other 
exercises.  Each  swing  consists  of  two  distinct  parts  :  1.  A  piece  of  2-inch 
deal,  1  foot  wide  and  3  feet  long,  one  end  of  which  is  sunk  firmly  in  the 
ground,  the  other  projecting  18  inches  above  the  surface.  At  each  edge  of 
this  piece  is  screwed  on  an  iron  plate,  with  an  eye  to  receive  the  iron  pivot 
on  which  the  upper  piece  works.  The  upper,  or  horizontal  piece,  is  made  of 
2-inch  plank,  1  foot  wide  and  12  feet  long.  At  each  end  of  this  piece  three 
handles,  formed  of  U-inch  deal,  are  strongly  mortised  in,  1  foot  apart,  thus 
forming  seats  for  three  children  at  each  end.  Between  the  handles  the 
plank  should  be  rounded  at  the  edges,  so  as  to  form  an  easy  seat.  At  the 
under  surface  of  each  end  a  small  block  of  wood  is  fixed,  to  prevent  the 
plank  wearing  by  striking  the  ground. 

The  above  directions  should  be  adhered  to.  If  the  support  be  made  lower, 
the  motion  of  the  swing  is  much  lessened;  if  the  plank  be  made  shorter,  or 
the  support  higher,  the  swing  approaches  too  nearly  to  the  perpendicular, 
and  serious  accidents  may  ensue  from  the  children  being  thrown  violently 
from  the  seats.  The  whole  should  be  made  as  stout  as  recommended,  other- 
wise it  is  apt  to  break  from  the  violent  action. 


The  Double  Inclined  Plane  is  adapted  more  especially  for  the  younger  chil- 
dren. It  consists  merely  of  a  support  of  two-inch  deal,  1  foot  wide,  and  pro- 
jecting 3  feet  from  the  ground.  On  this  is  laid  the  ends  of  two  planks,  each 
12  feet  long,  1  foot  wide,  and  li  inch  in  thickness.  On  the  upper  surface  of 
each  plank  may  be  nailed,  at  intervals  of  eight  or  ten  inches,  small  cross- 
pieces,  to  prevent  the  feet  slipping. 


The  use  of  the  inclined  plane  is,  that  by  ascending  and  descending  it,  chil- 
dren acquire  a  facility  in  balancing  themselves.  The  exercise  is  beneficial, 
as  it  calls  into  action 'the  muscles  of  the  legs  and  even  of  the  body.  It  also 
furnishes  an  excellent  situation  to  jump  from,  as  the  children  can  themselves 
vary  the  height  of  the  leap  at  pleasure. 

The  general  use  of  all  these  various  exercises  is,  that  the  different  muscles 
of  the  body  may  be  strengthened,  and  the  children  thus  fitted  for  a  future  life 
of  labor,  and  better  prepared  to  escape  in  case  of  accidents 


58 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


In  addition  to  these  simple  appliances  of  the  playground,  and  which  are  particu- 
larly adapted  to  young  children,  there  are  a  variety  of  gymnastic  machines  or 
apparatus,  designed  for  the  systematic  exercise  of  the  entire  physical  organization 
of  scholars,  some  of  which  it  would  be  desirable  to  provide  in  some  sheltered 
position  of  the  yard,  in  all  city  schools,  but  which  should  be  accessible  only  under 
strict  regulations,  and  the  instructions  of  a  well-trained  master.  As  an  illustra- 
tion both  of  the  machines  and  their  arrangement,  we  give  below  engravings  of 
the  ground  plan  and  principal  machines  of  the  gymnasium  attached  to  the  Collegi- 
ate and  Commercial  Institute — a  private  school  of  the  highest  grade  of  William 
II.  Russell,  of  New  Haven — which  has  the  best  apparatus  which  has  fallen  under 
our  observation  in  this  country. 

In  the  large  cut,  there  will  be  observed  a  partition  running  across  the  building 
near  the  stove  and  staircase  W.  This  marks  the  limit  of  a  boarded  platform  at 
this  end,  upon  which  arrangements  may  be  made  for  a  dressing-room,  or  at  least 
for  clothes  pegs. 

As  the  letters  upon  the  cuts  of  single  machines  designate  the  same  machines  in 
the  larger  engraving,  the  descriptions  which  we  will  give  of  them  will  apply  to 
both. 

The  wooden  horse.  A,  is  a  log,  which  may  be,  if  preferred,  rudely  fashioned 
like  a  horse's  body,  and  is  set  upon  four  legs,  about  breast  high.  Two  cross- 


pieces,  which  do  not  appear  in  the  cut,  should  be  set  transversely  in  the  places  of 
the  pommel  and  cantle  of  the  saddle,  raised  high  enough  to  allow  of  being  well 
grasped  by  the  hand,  and  rounded  over  the  top.  The  exercises  upon  this  ma- 
chine are  leaps  and  vaulting  with  the  help  of  the  hands,  which  are  set  upon  the 
above  cross-pieces,  or  on  various  parts  of  the  machine.  B,  is  a  spring-board ;  an 
elastic  plank  raised  upon  blocks  at  the  ends,  to  assist  the  spring.  It  is,  however, 
doubtful  whether  such  aids  are  desirable,  for  they  do  not  habituate  the  pupil  to 
the  unyielding  surface  from  which  leaps  must  generally  be  taken.  The  wooden 
horse  exercises  give  elasticity  and  spring  to  the  frames  and  are  useful  to  riders. 

C,  is  a  slanting  ladder,  and  J9,  a  horizontal  one.     The  exercises  upon  these 
consist  in  hanging  upon  or  under  them,  and  passing  from  one  end  to  the  other, 


x 


x  x  xx  x  x  x  x  V 


D 


uy  means  of  the  hands  alone,  in  various  ways,  and  are  intended  to  strengthen  the 
gripe,  the  arms,  and  the  shoulders.  The  slanting  ladder  may  run  at  an  angle  of 
about  forty-five  degrees,  from  a  base  about  four  feet  high,  to  an  altitude  as  great 
as  is  convenient. 


GYMNASTIC  APPARATUS. 


59 


p— — rv 


i\ 


s\ 


G30 

STOVE 


Ground  Plan  of  Gymnasium  attached  to  Russell's  Collegiate  and  Commercial  Institute, 

New  Haven. 


60 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


E,  is  a  pair  of  parallel  bars,  both  horizontal  and  slanting.     The  exercises  upon 
this  machine  widen  the  shoulders,  open  the  chest,  and  strengthen  that  and  the 


shoulders.  They  are  somewhat  difficult,  but  exceedingly  strengthening.  The 
bars  are  large  enough  to  grasp,  say  two  and  a  half  inches  in  thickness  by  three 
and  a  half  deep,  set  upon  strong  uprights,  so  framed  that  the  uprights  at  their 
insertion  do  not  extend  beyond  the  bars.  About  five  feet  is  a  proper  height  for 
the  upper  side  of  the  bars. 

F,  is  a  pair  of  inclined  ropes,  with  their  sliding-boxes.    The  windlass  at  Y,  with 
a  stout  ratchet,  is  used  to  keep  the  ropes  strained  tight.     This  machine  is  not 


very  useful ;  the  principal  operation  to  be  performed  upon  it  being  to  put  the 
eliding-boxes  under  the  arms,  and  progress  up  the  ropes  by  swinging  the  body. 

a      e  &     d c          i 


The  machines  marked  G,  H,  /,  K,  O,  c,  d,  and  c,  are  fixed  between  timbers 
and  cross-pieces,  whose  places  are  shown  by  dotted  lines,  and  the  ground.  G,  G, 
are  the  weights.  They  run  in  wooden  tubes,  and  are  suspended  upon  ropes,  at 
the  other  end  of  which  are  rings  for  handles,  seen  hanging  down  in  the  cut. 
These  are  used  to  exercise  the  arms ;  and  the  exercisers  upon  them  are  capable 
of  rapidly  developing  the  muscles  of  the  fore  arm,  upper  arm,  shoulder  and  chest. 
They  are  performed  by  drawing  or  pushing  out  the  weights  with  the  fingers,  hands, 
or  feet,  in  various  positions.  H,  is  a  slanting  ladder,  such  as  was  above  described. 
/,  is  a  double  running  rope,  running  over  two  sheaves  set  in  a  cross-piece  upon 


PLAY-GROUND  AND  GYMNASTIC  APPARATUS. 


61 


the,  t'rmbers  overhead,  and  with  a  stout  wooden  handle,  hung  by  the  middle,  at 
each  end  ;  so  that  these  handles  hang  loose,  perhaps  six  feet  apart,  and  five  or  six 
feet  from  the  ground.  Two  persons,  of  nearly  equal  weight,  are  best  fitted  to  use 
this  machine.  One  jumps  up  a  few  inches,  while  the  other  weighs  down  upon 
his  end  of  the  rope  so  as  to  keep  it  strained  tight ;  and  as  the  first  comes  down 
again,  the  second  jumps  in  his  turn  ;  the  motion  being  increased,  if  desired,  until 
the  jumps  carry  the  hands  up  to  the  timber  overhead,  and  the  lower  of  the  two 
pupils  crouches  down  to  the  ground.  K,  is  a  single  and  double  vaulting  bar. 
The  bars  are  movable  in  slips  in  the  uprights,  and  are  set  at  any  desired  height 
by  iron  pegs  running  in  holes  in  the  uprights  and  through  the  bars.  The  bars, 
either  alone  or  together,  are  used  for  performing  jumps  from  the  ground,  with 
the  hands  on  the  bar,  and  for  various  other  exercises  with  the  feet  off  the  ground. 
The  vaulting  exercises  strengthen  the  lower  limbs  and  give  elasticity ;  the  re- 
maining ones  are  chiefly  calculated,  as  indeed  are  the  majority  of  the  apparatus 
exercises,  to  strengthen  the  body  above  the  waist,  and  the  arms.  O,  is  a  trape- 
zium or  bar-swing  ;  a  hard-wood  cross-bar,  hung  by  two  ropes,  and  which  should 
be  about  five  and  a  half  or  six  feet  from  the  ground.  The  trapezium  exercises 
are  numerous,  and  consist  of  jumping,  swinging,  and  turning,  in  many  ways. 


62  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

They  are  not  very  difficult,  and  quite  pleasant  to  perform,  e,  e,  are  two  upright 
ropes  for  climbing,  and  d  is  a  perpendicular  pole  for  the  same  purpose.  These 
should  be  as  high  as  the  building  arrangements  will  allow,  c,  c,  are  upright  poles, 
with  pegs  in  them  fitting  loosely  into  holes.  These  poles  are  to  be  climbed  by 
taking  a  peg  in  each  hand  and  setting  them  one  after  another  into  the  holes.  At 
6,  in  the  large  cut,  are  two  upright  poles  at  about  the  width  of  the  shoulders  apart. 
These  may  be  used  for  climbing,  and  for  exercising  the  chest,  by  holding  the 
poles,  one  in  each  hand,  nearly  shoulder  high,  and  pushing  the  head  and  shoul- 
ders through  between  them.  P,  is  a  wide  spring-board  for  jumping  forward. 
R,  is  a  rope  swing.  S,  is  a  pair  of  iron  rings,  hung  upon  single  ropes  from  a  bar 
overhead,  about  as  high  as  the  trapezium  ;  and  the  exercises  upon  them  are  of 
the  same  character,  though  more  varied,  difficult,  and  pleasant.  They  demand 
and  develope  great  quickness,  and  strength  of  arm  and  chest,  and,  if  practiced  with 
care,  are  among  the  most  useful  of  the  gymnastic  exercises. 

71,  is  a  spring-beam  set  firmly  into  the  wall,  and  resting  upon  a  fulcrum  a  short 
distance  from  it,  so  as  to  furnish  considerable  elastic  force.  It  is  used  for  perpen- 
dicular jumping. 

U,  is  &  flying-machine  or  rotary-swing,  which  is  described  on  page  86. 

F,  is  a  movable  leaping -stand,  for  standing  or  running  jumps.  It  consists  of 
two  light  uprights,  set  in  heavy  bases,  so  as  to  stand  firmly,  and  with  a  row  of 
holes,  an  inch  or  two  apart,  at  corresponding  heights  in  each.  Pegs  fit  into  these, 
over  which,  at  any  desired  height,  may  be  hung  a  string  with  a  weight  of  about 
five  pounds  at  each  end.  By  this  means  all  danger  of  catching  the  feet  in  jump- 
ing is  avoided,  as  a  light  touch  throws  the  string  off  the  pegs. 


A',  (which  does  not  appear  on  the  large  cut)  is  a  horizontal  beam ;  a  stout 
square  stick  of  hard  wood  about  twenty  feet  long,  with  tenons  at  each  end, 
running  in  slits  in  the  uprights.  Iron  pins  pass  through  the  uprights,  and  through 
holes  in  the  tenons,  and  hold  the  beam  at  any  height  desired.  The  uprights 
may  stand  about  four  feet  above  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  the  holes  in  them 
may  be  three  inches  apart.  The  beam  should  be  not  less  than  four  inches  square. 
This  machine  is  used  for  various  leg  exercises,  which  are  of  considerable  value. 

Exercises  in  marching,  military  drill,  walking,  and  running,  should  be  combined 
with  the  apparatus  exercises,  as  these  latter  generally  serve  as  to  strengthen, 
and  develope  the  body  and  arms  more  than  the  legs.  Mr.  Russell  has  found  a 
most  healthy  and  valuable  disciplinary  influence  in  the  military  drill  constantly 
practiced  by  his  pupils.  It  gives  them  promptness,  an  upright  and  graceful  car- 
riage, and  habits  of  regularity  and  quick  obedience.  They  exercise  with  cadet 
muskets,  which  are  stored  in  a  small  loft  in  one  end  of  the  gymnasium,  and  are 
organized  into  a  very  neat  uniform  company. 

All  gymnastic  apparatus  should  be  made  of  the  best  materials  and  put  together 
in  the  best  manner,  in  order  to  withstand  the  great  strain  to  which  it  is  subject, 
and  to  prevent  accidents  from  breaking.  Most  or  all  of  the  uprights  should  be 
strongly  framed,  and  braced  into  mud-sills  at  least  two  feet  under  ground.  No 
exercises  should  be  ordinarily  allowed  in  the  gymnasium,  except  in  the  presence 
and  under  the  directions  of  a  competent  and  reliable  teacher.  The  exercises 
should  be  reduced  to  a  regular  and  progressive  system,  and  should  be  performed 
with  as  much  regularity  and  care  as  those  of  the  school  recitations  ;  according  to 
the  instructor's  directions,  and  by  no  means  according  to  the  caprice  of  the  pupils. 
This  precaution  will  almost  certainly  prevent  the  accidents  whose  occurrence  is  so 
often  used  as  an  argument  against  gymnastics,  and  ill-directed  efforts  to  perform 
the  harder  exercises  before  the  easier  are  mastered  ;  it  will  likewise  insure  a 
proper  amount  of  drilling  thorough  acquisition,  and  the  utmost  pleasure  and  ad- 
vantage to  the  pupils. 


PLAY  GROUNDS  AND  PRIVIES. 


63 


Every  school-house  should  be  provided  with  a  room,  where  the  pupils 
can  resort,  before  and  after  school  and  during  recess,  in  unpleasant 
weather ;  with  a  shed,  or  other  suitable  place  for  fuel,  which  should  be 
supplied  of  the  best  quality,  in  due  season,  and  in  the  right  condition  for 
use  ;  with  a  well,  or  other  mode  of  furnishing  pure  water ;  and  with  a 
bell,  large  enough  to  be  heard  over  the  district  from  which  the  school  is 
gathered. 

No  department  of  school  architecture  among  us  requires  such  imme- 
diate and  careful  attention  as  the  arrangement  and  construction  of  pri- 
vies. In  none  is  there  now  such  niggardly  economy,  or  outrageous  dis- 
regard to  health,  modesty,  and  morals,  practiced.  Over  this  portion  of 
the  school  premises  the  most  perfect  neatness,  seclusion,  order,  and  pro- 
priety should  be  enforced,  and  every  thing  calculated  to  defile  the 
mind,  or  wound  the  delicacy  or  modesty  of  the  most  sensitive  should  be 
immediatly  removed,  and  any  vulgarity  in  respect  to  it,  on  the  part  of 
the  pupils,  should  receive  attention  in  private,  and  be  made  a  matter  of 
parental  advice  and  co-orporation.  Neglect  in  this  particular,  on  the  part 
of  the  community,  in  providing  suitable  buildings  and  premises,  or  of  the 
teacher,  in  enforcing  proper  regulations,  has  been  followed  with  the  most 
disastrous  results  to  the  health  and  happiness  of  thousands  of  pupils. 

There  should  be  one  provided  for  each  sex.  widely  separated  from 
each  other — inclosed  from  the  general  play  ground. — and  accessible  by 
a  covered  walk,  and,  if  practicable,  from  the  basement,  or  clothes-room 
appropriated  to  each  sex,  and  kept  locked,  except  during  school-hours. 
They  should  be  ventilated,  and  frequently  and  thoroughly  cleansed. 
Where  water  closets  can  be  introduced,  it  will  be  a  wise  economy  to 
adopt  them.  The  following  plan  is  copied  from  "  jRicfison-s  School- 
Builde^s  Guide" 


A — Cross  sections,  without  the  end  wall  and  entance. 

a — The  seat,  with  water  channel  to  the  level  of  the  floor.  At  the  back  and 
front  of  a,  dipping  1  inch  into  the  water,  is  a  Valentia  slate,  1  inch  thick.  The 
channel,  although  here  drawn  angular,  would  be  better  of  an  oval  form. 

b— The  level  of  floor. 

B — Longitudinal  section. 

C — Cistern,  supplied  by  ball  tap,  with  sliding  valve  to  lift  and  flush  the  chan- 
nel G. 

E — (With  line  above)  a  sloping  Valentia  slate,  l|  feet  high,  to  form  urinal,  dip- 
ping 1  inch  into  the  water. 

n — A  sliding  valve  to  lift  and  let  off  water. 

m — An  inclined  trough  or  drain  to  cany  off  water  when  the  channel  is  flushed 
bj?  opening  valves  c  and  n. 

d — An  escape  pipe,  bent  to  form  a  trap  at  d,  fixed  at  the  level  of  the  floor, 
behind  the  girt  in  the  corner  of  E,  to  carry  off  superfluous  water. 

The  valves,  at  c,  and  n,  being  opened  every  evening,  or  more  frequently,  will 
thoroughly  cleanse  the  channel ;  and  the  valve  at  n  being  first  shut,  the  channel 
G  may" be  filled  before  c  is  closed. 


64  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

1.  PLANS  OF  SCHOOL-HOUSES  RECOMMENDED  BY  PRACTICAL 
TEACHERS  AND  EDUCATORS. 

PLAN,  &c.  RECOMMENDED  BY  DR.  ALCOTT,  AND  BY  THE  AMERICAN  INSTI 
TUTE  OF  INSTRUCTION. 

In  1830  the  American  Institute  of  Instruction  offered  a  premium  for  the 
best  Essay  u  On  the  Construction  of  School-houses"  which  was  awarded  in 
Aug.  1831,  to  Dr.  William  A.  Alcott,  of  Hartford.  The  Prize  Essay*  was 
published  in  the  proceedings  of  the  Institute  of  the  same  year,  together  with 
a  "  Plan  for  a  Village  School-house"  devised  by  a  Committee  of  the  Direc- 
tors of  the  Institute. 

The  plan  of  the  school-room  recommended  by  Dr.  Alcott,  although  less 
complete  in  some  of  its  details,  is  substantially  the  same  as  that  recommended 
by  Mr.  Mann,  and  can  be  easily  understood  by  reference  to  the  cut  of  the 
latter  on  the  opposite  page.  The  room,  to  accommodate  56  pupils  each,  with 
a  separate  seat  and  desk,  and  from  8  to  16  small  children  with  seats  for  two, 
should  be  40  ft.  long  by  30  wide.  The  teacher's  platform  occupies  the  north 
end  of  the  room,  towards  which  all  the  scholars  face  when  in  their  seats. 
Each  scholar  is  provided  with  a  seat  and  desk,  (each  2  ft.  by  14  inches,)  the 
front  of  one  desk  constituting  the  back  of  the  seat  beyond.  The  top  of  the 
desk  is  level,  with  a  box  and  lid  for  books,  &c.  The  aisles  on  each  side  of  the 
room,  are  2  feet  wide,  and  those  between  each  range  of  seats  and  desk  is  18 
inches.  A  place  for  recitation  8  feet  wide  extends  across  the  whole  width  of 
the  room,  in  the  rear,  with  movable  blackboards.  The  room  can  be  warmed 
by  stove,  placed  as  in  the  cut  referred  to,  or  by  air  heated  by  furnace  or  stove 
in  the  basement.  The  room  is  ventilated  by  openings  in  the  ceiling.  A 
thermometer,  library,  museum,  &c.,  are  to  be  furnished. 

In  the  "  Plan  for  a  village  School-house,"  the  school-room  is  48  ft.  long  by 
35  wide,  to  accommodate  eighty  scholars  with  separate  seats.  The  details 
of  the  arrangements  are  nearly  the  same  as  were  at  that  date  recommended 
for  schools  on  the  Lancasterian  plan,  and  as  are  now  recommended  by  the 
British  and  Foreign  School  Society — except  that  the  floor  of  the  room  is 
level,  and  the  seats  are  provided  with  backs.  In  the  explanations  accompany- 
ing the  plan,  the  Directors  recommend,  that  in  villages  and  populous  neigh- 
borhoods, the  children  be  classified  according  to  age  and  attainment  into  a 
series  of  schools,  and  that  appropriate  rooms  for  each  school  be  provided. 

PLAN  RECOMMENDED  BY  HORACE  MANN. 

In  1838,  Mr.  Mann  submitted  a  Report  on  School-houses,  supplementary  to 
his  "First  Annual  Report  as  Secretary  of  the  Massachusetts  Board  of  Edu- 
cation,'1 which  discusses  the  whole  subject  of  school  architecture  with  great 
fulness  and  ability.  This  document  may  be  found  entire  in  the  Massachu- 
setts Common  School  Journal,  Vol  1.,  and  nearly  so,  in  the  Connecticut 
Common  School  Journal,  Vol.  1.,  and  the  New  York  District  School  Journal, 
Vol.  3.  It  fixed  public  attention  on  the  defects  of  these  edifices,  and  has  led 
to  extensive  improvement  all  over  that  Commonwealth.  During  the  five 
years  immediately  following  its  publication,  over  $516,000  were  expended  in 
the  construction  of  405  new  houses,  including  land,  fixtures,  &c.,  and  over 
SI  18,000,  in  the  substantial  repairs  of  429  more.  The  larger  portion  of  the 
first  sum  has  been  expended  in  the  cities  and  large  villages  in  the  eastern  part 
of  the  state,  where  may  now  be  seen  specimens  of  the  best  school-houses,  and 
the  best  schools,  in  our  country.  The  following  plan  embodies  substan- 
tially the  views  submitted  by  Mr.  Mann,  in  his  Report. 

*  This  Essay  of  Dr.  Alcott  was  the  pioneer  publication  on  this  subject.  It  was  fol- 
lowed in  1833  by  a  "  Report  on  School-houses"  prepared  by  the  Rev.  G.  B.  Perry,  and 
published  by  the  Essex  County  Teacher's  Association.  This  last  is  a  searching  and 
vigorous  exposition  of  the  evils  resulting  from  the  defective  construction,  and  arrange 
ments  of  school-houses,  as  they  were  at  that  date  almost  universally  found. 


PLAN  OF  DISTRICT  SCHOOL-HOUSE  BY  MR.  MANN. 


65 


A.  Represents  the  teacher's  desk.  B  B.  Teacher's  platform,  from  1  to  2  ft.  in  height. 
C.  Step  for  ascending  the  platform.  L  L.  Cases  for  books,  apparatus,  cabinet,  &c. 
H.  Pupils'  single  desks,  2  ft.  by  18  inches.  M.  Pupils'  seat,  1  ft.  by  20  inches.  7.  Aisles, 
1  ft.  6  inches  in  width.  D.  Place  for  stove,  if  one  be  used.  E.  Room  for  recitation,  foi 
retiring  in  case  of  sudden  indisposition,  for  interview  with  parents,  when  necessary,  &c. 
It  may  also  be  used  for  the  library,  &c.  F  F  F  F  F.  Doors  into  the  boys'  and  girls' 
entries — from  the  entries  into  the  school-room,  and  from  the  school- room  into  the  recita- 
tion room.  G  G  G  G.  Windows.  The  windows  on  the  sides  are  not  lettered. 

For  section  of  seat  and  desk  constructed  after  Mr.  Mann's 
plan,  see  p.  47.  To  avoid  the  necessity  of  fitting  up  the 
same  school-room  for  old  and  young,  and  the  inefficiency  of 
such  country  schools  as  we  now  have,  Mr.  Mann  proposed 
in  this  Report  a  union,  for  instance  of  four  districts  which 
did  not  cover  more  than  four  miles  square,  and  the  erection 
of  four  primary  school-houses,  (a  a  a  a)  for  the  younger  chil- 
dren of  each  district,  to  be  taught  by  female  teachers,  and 
one  central  or  high  school,  (A)  for  the  older  children  of  the 
four  districts,  taught  by  a  well  qualified  male  teacher.  This 
plan  is  recommended  for  its  wise  use  of  the  means  of  the 
districts,  and  the  efficiency  of  the  instruction  given. 


2  m 
a 


2  m 
a 


66  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

PLANS,  &c.,  RECOMMENDED  BY  GEORGE  B.  EMERSON. 

The  ''  School  and  Schoolmaster,"*  contains  a  very  valuable  chapter  on 
school-houses,  by  Mr.  Emerson,  the  President  of  the  American  Institute  of 
Instruction,  illustrated  by  drawings,  which,  with  the  permission  of  the  authors 
and  publishers  are  introduced  here.  The  whole  chapter,  as  the  production 
of  one  of  the  most  eminent  teachers  and  writers  on  education  of  the  age, 
should  be  studied  by  every  one  who  would  become  thoroughly  acquainted  with 
the  subject.  Most  of  his  valuable  suggestions  are  subjoined. 

Situation. — So  much  do  the  future  health,  vigor,  taste,  and  moral  principles 
of  the  pupil  depend  upon  the  position,  arrangement,  and  construction  of  the 
school-house,  that  everything  about  it  is  important.  When  the  most  desira- 
ble situation  can  be  selected,  and  the  laws  of  health  and  the  dictates  of  taste 
may  be  consulted,  it  should  be  placed  on  firm  ground,  on  the  southern  declivi- 
ty of  a  gently  sloping  hill,  open  to  the  southwest,  from  which  quarter  comes 
the  pleasantest  winds  in  summer,  and  protected  on  the  northeast  by  the  top  of 
the  hill  or  by  a  thick  wood.  From  the  road  it  should  be  remote  enough  to 
escape  the  noise,  and  dust,  and  danger,  and  yet  near  enough  to  be  easily 
accessible  by  a  path  or  walk,  alwrays  dry.  About  it  should  be  ample  space, 
a  part  open  for  a  play-ground,  a  part  to  be  laid  out  in  plots  for  flowers  and 
shrubs,  with  winding  alleys  for  walks.  Damp  places,  in  the  vicinity  of  stag- 
nant pools  or  unwholesome  marshes,  and  bleak  hilltops  or  dusty  plains,  should 
be  carefully  avoided.  Tall  trees  should  partially  shade  the  grounds,  not  in 
stiff  rows  or  heavy  clumps,  but  scattered  irregularly  as  if  by  the  hand  of  Na- 
ture. Our  native  forests  present  such  a  choice  of  beautiful  trees,  that  the 
grounds  must  be  very  extensive  to  afford  room  for  even  a  single  fine  speci- 
men of  each ;  yet  this  should,  if  possible,  be  done,  for  children  ought  early  to 
become  familiar  with  the  names,  appearance,  and  properties  of  these  noblest 
of  inanimate  things.  The  border  of  a  natural  wood  may  often  be  chosen  for 
the  site  of  a  school ;  but  if  it  is  to  be  thinned  out,  or  if  trees  are  to  be  planted, 
and,  from  limited  space,  a  selection  is  to  be  made,  the  kingly,  magnificent 
oaks,  the  stately  hickories,  the  spreading  beech  for  its  deep  mass  of  shade, 
the  maples  for  their  rich  and  abundant  foliage,  the  majestic  elm,  the  usefu] 
ash,  the  soft  and  graceful  birches,  and  the  towering,  columnar  sycamore, 
claim  precedence.  Next  may  come  the  picturesque  locusts,  with  their  hang- 
ing, fragrant  flowers  ;  the  tulip-tree ;  the  hemlock,  best  of  evergreens  ;  the 
celtis,  or  sweet  gum  ;  the  nyssa,  or  tupelo,  with  horizontal  branches  and  pol- 
ished leaves  ;  the  walnut  and  butternut,  the  native  poplar,  and  the  aspen. 

Of  extremely  beautiful  American  shrubs,  the  number  is  so  great  that  I  have 
no  room,  for  a  list.  What  place  intended  to  form  the  taste  of  the  young, 
should  be  without  the  kalmias,  rhododendrons,  cornels,  roses,  viburnums, 
magnolias,  clethras,  honeysuckles,  and  spiraeas  1  And  whoever  goes  into  the 
woods  to  gather  these,  will  find  a  multitude  of  others  which  he  will  hardly 
consent  to  leave  behind.  The  hilltop  should  be  planted  with  evergreens, 
forming,  at  all  seasons,  a  barrier  against  the  winds  from  the  north  and  east. 

Of  the  flower  plots,  little  need  be  said.  They  must  be  left  to  the  taste  of 
the  teacher,  and  of  cultivated  persons  in  the  district.  I  can  only  recommend 
our  wild  American  plants,  and  again  remind  the  reader,  that  there  is  hardly  a 

*  The  "  School  and  Schoolmaster,"  a  Manual  for  the  use  of  Teachers,  Employers, 
Trustees,  Inspectors,  &c.,  &c.,  of  Common  Schools.  Part  I.  By  Alonzo  Potter,  D.  D. 
Part  II.  By  George  B.  Emerson,  pp.  552.  Harper  &  Brothers,  82  Cliff  street,  New- 
York.  Price,  $1. 

This  excellent  treatise,  the  most  valuable  contribution  yet  made  to  the  educational  lit- 
erature of  our  country,  was  prepared  and  published  originally  at  the  expense  of  James 
Wadsworth,  Esq.,  of  Geneseo,  N.  Y.,  in  1842.  By  him  a  copy  was  presented  to  each  of 
the  11,000  school  districts  of  that  state.  Following  thi*  noble  example,  the  Hon.  Martin 
Brimmer,  the  present  mayor  of  the  city  of  Boston,  caused  to  be  printed,  at  his  expense, 
such  a  number  of  copies  as  would  supply  one  copy  each  to  all  the  school  districts,  and 
one  copy  each  to  all  the  boards  of  school  committee  men,  in  Massachusetts. 

The  work  should  be  scattered  broadcast  through  every  state  in  the  Union.  In  large 
orders,  or  for  gratuitous  distribution,  it  can  be  had  of  the  publishers  at  a  very  low  rate. 


PLAN  OF  DISTRICT  SCHOOL-HOUSE,  BY  MR.  G.  B.  EMERSON.  QQ 

country  town  in  New  York  or  New  England,  from  whose  woods  and  mead- 
ows a  hundred  kinds  of  flowers  might  not  be  transplanted,  of  beauty  enough 
to  form  the  chief  ornament  of  a  German  or  English  garden,  which  are  now 
neglected  only  because  they  are  common  and  wild.  Garden  flowers  need  not 
be  excluded  ;  and  if  either  these  or  the  former  are  cultivated,  the  great  ob- 
ject, to  present  something  to  refine  and  inform  the  taste,  will  be,  in  some  de- 
gree, accomplished. 

If  proper  inclosed  play-grounds  are  provided,  the  master  may  often  be  pres- 
ent at  the  sports,  and  thus  become  acquainted  with  the  character,  of  his  pu- 
pils. If  children  are  compelled  to  resort  to  the  highway  for  their  amusements, 
•ve  ought  not  to  wonder  that  they  should  be  contaminated  by  the  vices,  brawl- 
ings,  and  profanities,  which  belong  to  frequenters  of  highways. 

Size. — The  room  should  be  sufficiently  large  to  allow  every  pupil,  1.  to  sit 
comfortably  at  his  desk  ;  2.  to  leave  it  without  disturbing  any  one  else  ;  3.  to 
see  explanations  on  his  lessons,  and  to  recite  without  being  incommoded  or 
incommoding  others  ;  4.  to  breathe  a  wholesome  atmosphere. 

If  the  first  three  objects  are  fully  provided  for,  the  space  on  the  floor  will  be 
sufficient.  But  to  secure  the  advantage  of  an  adequate  supply  of  air,  the  room 
must  be  not  less  than  10,  and,  if  possible,  12  or  14,  feet  high. 

Arrangement. — For  the  accommodation  of  56  scholars,  so  as  to  give  ample 
room  for  moving,  for  recitations,  and  for  air,  the  dimensions  of  the  house 
should  be  38  feet  by  25,  and  10  feet  in  height  within.  This  will  allow  an  en- 
try of  14  feet  by  7|,  lighted  by  a  window,  to  be  furnished  with  wooden  pegs 
for  the  accommodation  of  clothes  ;  a  wood-room,  10  feet  by  7£,  to  serve  also 
as  an  entry  for  girls  at  recess,  or  as  a  recitation  room ;  a  space  behind  the 
desks  8  feet  wide,  for  fireplace,  passage,  and  recitations,  with  permanent 
seats  against  the  wall  10  or  11  inches  wide  ;  a  platform,  7  feet  wide,  for  the 
teacher,  with  the  library,  blackboards,  globes,  and  other  apparatus  for  teach- 
ing ;  the  remaining  space  to  be  occupied  by  the  desks  and  seats  of  the  schol 
ars.  For  every  additional  8  scholars  the  room  may  be  lengthened  2^  feet. 
The  desks  and  seats  for  scholars  should  be  of  different  dimensions.  A  desk 
for  two  may  be  3?  or  4  feet  long.  If  the  younger  children  are  placed  nearest 
the  master's  desfi,  the  desks  in  the  front  range  may  be  13  inches  wide,  the 
two  next  14,  the  two  next  15,  and  the  two  most  remote  16,  with  the  height, 
respectively,  of  24,  25,  26,  and  27  inches.  The  seats  should  vary  in  like 
manner.  Those  in  the  front  range  should  be  10  inches  wide,  in  the  two  next 
10£,  in  the  two  next  11,  in  the  two  last  11|  or  12  ;  and  13£,  14,  15,  and  16 
inches,  respectively,  high.  All  edges  and  corners  are  to  be  carefully  rounded. 

It  is  very  desirable  that  the  north  end  of  the  school-house  be  occupied  by 
the  master's  desk  ;  that  this  end  be  a  dead  wall ;  that  the  front  be  towards 
the  south ;  and  that  the  desks  be  so  placed  that  the  pupils,  as  they  sit  at  them, 
shall  look  towards  the  north.  The  advantages  of  this  arrangement  are,  1. 
that  the  scholars  will  obtain  more  correct  ideas  upon  the  elements  of  geo- 
graphy, as  all  maps  suppose  the  reader  to  be  looking  northward  ;  2.  the 
north  wall,  having  no  windows,  will  exclude  the  severest  cold  of  winter  ; 
3.  the  scholars  will,  in  this  case,  look  towards  a  dead  wall,  and  thus  avoid 
the  great  evil  of  facing  a  glare  of  light  ;  or,  if  a  window  or  two  be  allowed  in 
the  north  wall,  the  light  coming  from  that  quarter  is  less  vivid,  and,  therefore, 
less  dangerous,  than  that  which  comes  from  any  other  ;  4.  the  door,  being 
on  the  south,  will  open  towards  the  winds  which  prevail  in  summer,  and/rom 
the  cold  winds  of  winter. 

If,  from  necessity,  the  house  must  front  northward,  the  master's  desk 
should  be  still  in  the  north  end  of  the  room,  and  the  scholars,  when  seated, 
look  in  that  direction. 

The  end  of  the  room  occupied  by  the  master  should  be  fitted  with  shelws 
for  a  library  and  for  philosophical  apparatus  and  collections  of  natural  curios 
ities,  such  as  rocks,  minerals,  plants,  and  shells,  for  globes  and  for  black- 
boards. The  books,  apparatus,  and  collections  should  be  concealed  and  pro- 
tected by  doors,  which  may  be  made  perfectly  plain  and  without  panels,  so  as 
to  be  painted  black  and  serve  as  blackboards.  They  may  be  conveniently 
divided  by  pilasters  into  three  portions,  the  middle  one  for  books,  the  others 


70 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


for  apparatus  and  collections.  On  one  of  the  pilasters  may  be  the  clock  ;  on 
the  other  a  barometer  and  thermometer ;  on  shelves  in  the  corners,  the 
globes,  and  over  the  library  in  the  center,  the  study  card.  One  of  the  pilas- 
ters may  form  part  of  the  ventilating  tube.  The  master's  platform  may  be 
raised  eight  inches.  For  all  these  purposes,  the  space  in  front  of  the  ranges 
of  scholars'  desks,  should  be  not  less 
than  seven  or  eight  feet  wide  ;  ten 
or  twelve  would  be  much  better. 
The  sides  and  front  of  this  space 
hould  be  furnished  with  seats  ten 
or  eleven  inches  wide,  for  recitation. 
By  means  of  a  large  movable  black- 
board, this  space  may  be,  in  case  of 
need,  converted  into  two,  so  that 
two  classes  may  recite  at  a  time. 
In  a  school  intended  to  accommo- 
date more  than  64  pupils,  there 
ought  also  to  be  a  space  for  recita- 
tion in  the  south  end  of  the  room, 
separable  by  movable  blackboards 
into  two. 

The  entry  should  be  lighted  by  a 
window,  and  be  furnished  with 
wooden  or  iron  pins  for  the  accom- 
modation of  hats,  bonnets,  and 
cloaks ;  and  there  should  be  a  wrood- 
closet  large  enough  to  contain  two 
or  three  cords  of  wood,  which  may, 
if  it  is  preferred,  be  used  as  a  recita- 
tion room. 


Movable   Blackboard. 


By  making  the  ceiling  of  the  entry  and  wood-closet  only  seven  feet  high, 
two  commodious  rooms  for  recitation  may  be  formed  above  them,  lighted 
from  the  window  over  the  front  door,  and  accessible  by  stairs  from  within  the 
school-room. 

Warming. — In  a  suitable  position, 
pointed  out  in  the  plates,  near  the  door, 
let  a  common  brick  fireplace  be  built.  Let 
this  be  inclosed,  on  the  back  and  on  each 
side,  by  a  casing  of  brick,  leaving,  be- 
tween the  fireplace  and  the  casing,  a  space 
of  four  or  five  inches,  which  will  be  heat- 
ed through  the  back  and  jambs.  Into  this 
space  let  the  air  be  admitted  from  beneath 
by  a  box  24  inches  wide  and  6  or  8  deep, 
leading  from  the  external  atmosphere  by 
an  opening  beneath  the  front  door,  or  at 
some  other  convenient  place.  The  brick 
casing  should  be  continued  up  as  high  as 
six  or  eight  inches  above  the  top  of  the 
fireplace,  where  it  may  open  into  the  room 
by  lateral  orifices,  to  be  commanded  by 
iron  doors,  through  which  the  heated  air 
will  enter  the  room.  If  these  are  lower, 
part  of  the  warm  air  will  find  its  way  into 
the  fireplace.  The  brick  chimney  should 


Fireplace. 


A.  Horizontal  section.      B.  Perpendicular  section,     c.  Brick  walls,  4  inches  thick. 


d.  Air  space  between  the  walls,     i.  Solid  fronts  of  masonry.  /.  Air  box  for  supply  of  fresh 

-.     #.  Openings  on  the  sides  of  t 
h.  Front  of  the  fireplace  and  mantelpiece. 


the  fire- 


air,  extending  beneath  the  floor  to  the  front  door. 

place,  for  the  heated  air  to  pass  into  the  room. 

i.  Iron  smoke  flue,  8  inches  diameter,    j.  Space  between  the  fireplace  and  wall     Je.  Par- 
tition wall.    I  Floor. 


PLAN  OF  DISTRICT  SCHOOL-HOUSE,  BY  MR.  G.  B.  EMERSON. 


71 


rise  at  least  two  or  three  feet  above  the  hollow  back,  and  may  be  surmounted 
by  a  flat  iron,  soap-stone,  or  brick  top,  with  an  opening  for  a  smoke-pipe, 
which  may  be  thence  conducted  to  any  part  of  the  room.  The  smoke-pipe 
should  rise  a  foot,  then  pass  to  one  side,  and  then  over  a  passage,  to  the  oppo- 
site extremity  of  the  room,  where  it  should  ascend  perpendicularly,  and  issue 
above  the  roof.  The  fireplace  should  be  provided  with  iron  doors,  by  which 
it  may  be  completely  closed. 

The  advantages  of  this  double  fireplace  are,  1.  the  fire,  being  made  against 
brick,  imparts  to  the  air  of  the  apartment  none  of  the  deleterious  qualities 
which  are  produced  by  a  common  iron  stove,  but  gives  the  pleasant  heat  of  an 
open  fireplace  ;  2.  none  of  the  heat  of  the  fuel  will  be  lost,  as  the  smoke-pipe 
may  be  extended  far  enough  to  communicate  nearly  all  the  heat  contained  in 
the  smoke  ;  3.  the  current  of  air  heated  within  the  hollow  back,  and  constant- 
ly pouring  into  the  room,  will  diffuse  an  equable  heat  throughout  every  part ; 
4.  the  pressure  of  the  air  of  the  room  will  be  constantly  outward,  little  cold 
will  enter  by  cracks  and  windows,  and  the  fireplace  will  have  no  tendency  to 
smoke  ;  5.  by  means  of  the  iron  doors,  the  fire  may  be  completely  controlled, 
increased  or  diminished  at  pleasure,  with  the  advantages  of  an  air-tight  stove. 
For  that  purpose,  there  must  be  a  valve  or  slide  near  the  bottom  of  one  of  the 
doors. 

If,  instead  of  this  fireplace,  a  common  stove  be  adopted,  it  should  be  placed 
above  the  air-passage,  which  may  be  commanded  by  a  valve  or  register  in  the 
floor,  so  as  to  admit  or  exclude  air. 

Ventilation. — A  room  warmed  by  such  a  fireplace  as  that  just  described, 
may  be  easily  ventilated.  If  a  current  of  air  is  constantly  pouring  in,  a  cur- 
rent of  the  same  size  will  rush  out  wherever  it  can  find  an  outlet,  and  with  it 
will  carry  the  impurities  wherewith  the  air  of  an  occupied  room  is  always 
charged. .  For  the  first  part  of  the  morning,  the  open  fireplace  may  suffice. 
But  this,  though  a  very  effectual,  is  not  an  economical  ventilator ;  and  when 
the  issue  through  this  is  closed, 
.some  other  must  be  provided.  The 
most  effective  ventilator  for  throw- 
ing out  foul  air,  is  one  opening  into 
a  tube  which  incloses  the  smoke- 
flue  at  the  point  \vhere  it  passes 
through  the  roof.  Warm  air  natu- 
rally rises.  If  a  portion  of  the 
smoke-flue  be  inclosed  by  a  tin  tube, 
it  will  warm  the  air  within  this  tube, 
and  give  it  a  tendency  to  rise.  If, 
then,  a  wooden  tube,  opening  near 
the  floor,  be  made  to  communicate, 
by  its  upper  extremity,  with  the  tin 
tube,  an  upward  current  will  take 
place  in  it,  which  will  always  act 
whenever  the  smoke-flue  is  warm. 

It  is  better,  but  not  absolutely  es- 
sential, that  the  opening  into  the 
wooden  tube  be  near  the  floor.  The 
carbonic  acid  thrown  out  by  the 

lungs  rises,  with  the  warm  breath,  ?overed  by  the  pilaster,  and  opening  at  the  floor, 
and  the  perspirable  matter  from  the  'n  *he  base  of  the  pilaster.  B.  Round  iron  tube 

15i  inches  m  diameter,  being  a  continuation  of 
km    w  ith  the  w  arm,  invisible  va-  the  air  b      th       h  thel  cent|r  of  which          3 

por,  to  the  top  of  the  room.     There  c.  The  smoke  flue,  8  inches  in  diameter.    D 
both  soon   cool,   and  sink  towards  Caps  to  keep  out  the  rain, 
the  floor  ;  and  both  carbonic  air  and 

the  vapor  bearing  the  perspirable  matter  are  pretty  rapidly  and  equally  dif- 
fused through  every  part  of  the  room. 

Seats  and  Desks. — Instead  of  a  seat  and  desk  for  each  pupil,  Mr.  Emer- 
son recommends  that  two  seats  should  be  contiguous.  In  his  drawings,  tho 
desk  is  perfectly  level  like  a  table,  and  the  back  to  the  seat  is  perpendicular. 


[Scale  8  feet  to  an  inch.] 
Ventilating  Apparatus. 
A.  Air  box,  1  foot  square,  or  24  inches  by  6, 


72  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

SCHOOL    FOR    ONE    HUNDRED    AND    TWENTY    PUPILS. 


51  feet  by  31  feet  outside.] 

D.  Entrance  door.  E.  Entry.  F.  Fireplace.  C.  Wood  closet.  T.  Teacher's  plat- 
form, a.  Apparatus  shelves,  t.  Air  tube  beneath  the  floor,  d.  Doors,  g.  Globes.  1.  Li 
brary  shelves,  m.  Master's  table  and  seat.  p.  Passages,  r.  Recitation  seats,  s.  Schol- 
ars'  desks  and  seats,  r  s.  Stairs  to  recitation  rooms  in  the  attic,  v.  Ventilator,  w.  Win- 
dows.  b.  Movable  blackboard,  a  s.  Air  space  behind  the  fireplace. 


SCHOOL    FOR    FORTY-EIGHT    PUPILS. 


24  feet  by  28  feet  outside.]  [Scale  8  feet  to  the  inch. 

D.  Entrance  door.  E.  Entry.  F.  Fireplace.  C.  Wood  closet,  or  recitation  room 
T.  Teacher's  platform,  a.  Apparatus  shelves,  t.  Air  tube  beneath  the  floor,  d.  Doors 
§-.  Globes.  /.  Library  shelves,  m.  Master's  table  and  seat.  p.  Passages,  r.  Recitation 
seats,  s.  Scholars'  desks  and  seats,  v.  Ventilator,  w.  Windows.  6.  Movable  black- 
board, a.  s.  Air  space  behind  the  fireplace. 


i  ur  ruDUu •inioi'tuUlK 
e  of  California.  'unty, 

J  AGK  SOW    D  I  r>  1RDAD 

OCTAGONAL  PLAN  FOR  DISTRICT  SCHOOL-HOUSE.  73 

PLANS,  &c.,  OF  AN  OCTAGONAL  SCHOOL-HOUSE. 
Furnished  for  the  "School  and  School-master  "  by  Messrs.  Town  and  Davis. 


Fig.  1. 

THIS  design  for  a  school-house  intends  to  exhibit  a  model  of  fitness  and  close 
economy.  The  principles  of  fitness  are,  1.  Ample  dimensions,  with  very 
nearly  the  least  possible  length  of  wall  for  its  inclosure,  the  roof  being  con- 
structed without  tie  beams,  the  upper  and  lower  ends  of  the  rafters  being  helo 
by  the  wall  plates  and  frame  at  the  foot  of  the  lantern.  The  ceiling  maj 
show  the  timber-work  of  the  roof,  or  it  may  be  plastered.  2.  Light,  a  uniform 
temperature,  and  a  free  ventilation,  secured  by  a  lantern  light,  thus  avoiding 
lateral  windows  (except  for  air  in  summer,)  and  gaining  wall-room  for  black- 
boards, maps,  models,  and  illustrations.  Side  windows  are  shown  in  the 
view,  and  maybe  made  an  additionby  those  who  doubt  the  efficiency  of  the 
lantern  light.  (The  lantern  is  not  only  best  for  light,  but  it  is  essential  for  a 
free  ventilation.)  With  such  a  light,  admitted  equally  to  all  the  desks,  there 
will  be  no  inconvenience  from  shadows.  The  attention  of  the  scholars  will 
not  be  distracted  by  occurrences  or  objects  out  of  doors.  There  will  be  less 
expense  for  broken  glass,  as  the  sashes  will  be  removed  from  ordinary  acci- 
dents. The  room,  according  to  this  plan,  is  heated  by  a  fire  in  the  center, 
either  in  a  stove  or  grate,  with  a  pipe  going  directly  through  the  roof  of  the 
lantern,  and  finishing  outside  in  a  sheet-iron  vase,  or  other  appropriate  cap. 
The  pipe  can  be  tastefully  fashioned,  with  a  hot-air  chamber  near  the  floor,  so 
as  to  afford  a  large  radiating  surface  before  the  heat  is  allowed  to  escape. 
This  will  secure  a  uniform  temperature  in  every  part  of  the  room,  at  the  same 
time  that  the  inconvenience  from  a  pipe  passing  directly  over  the  heads  of 
children,  is  avoided.  The  octagonal  shape  will  admit  of  any  number  of  seats 
and  desks,  (according  to  the  size  of  the  room,)  arranged  parallel  with  the  sides,- 
constructed  as  described  in  specification,  or  on  such  principles  as  may  be  pre- 
ferred. The  master's  seat  may  be  in  the  center  of  the  room,  and  the  seats  be 
BO  constructed  that  the  scholars  may  sit  with  their  backs  to  the  center,  by 
which  their  attention  will  not  be  diverted  by  facing  other  scholars  on  the  op- 
posite side,  and  yet  so  that  at  times  they  may  all  face  the  master,  and  the 
whole  school  be  formed  into  one  class.  The  lobby  next  to  the  front  door  is 
made  large,  (8  by  20)  so  that  it  may  serve  for  a  recitation-room.  This  lobby 


74 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


is  to  finish  eight  feet  high, 
the  inside  wall  to  show  like 
a  screen,  not  rising  to  the 
roof,  and  the  space  above 
be  open  to  the  school- 
room, and  used  to  pat 
away  or  station  school  ap- 
paratus. This  screen-like 
wall  may  be  hung  with 
hats  and  /clothes,  or  the 
triangular  space  next  the 
window  may  be  inclosed 
for  this  purpose.  The 
face  of  the  octagon  oppo- 
site to  the  porch,  has  a 
wood-house  attached  to  it, 
serving  as  a  sheltered  way 
to  a  double  privy  beyond. 
This  woodhouse  is  open 
on  two  sides,  to  admit  of 
a  cross  draught  of  air, 
preventing  the  possibility 
of  a  nuisance.  Other 
wing-rooms  (A  A)  may  be 


Fig.  2. 


attached  to  the  remaining  sides  of  the  octagon,  if  additional  conveniences  for 
closets,  library,  or  recitation-rooms  be  desired. 

The  mode  here  suggested,  of  a  lantern  in  the  center  of  the  roof  for  lighting 
all  common  school-houses,  is  so  great  a  change  from  common  usage  in  our 
country,  that  it  requires  full  and  clear  explanations  for  its  execution,  and  plain 
and  satisfactory  reasons  for  its  general  adoption,  and  of  its  great  excellence  in 
preference  to  the  common  mode.  They  are  as  follows,  viz. : 

1.  A  skylight  is  well  known  to  be  far  better  and  stronger  than  light  from 
the  sides  of  the  building  in  cloudy  weather,  and  in  morning  and  evening.    The 
difference  is  of  the  greatest  importance.     In  short  days  (the  most  used  for 
schools)  it  is  still  more  so. 

2.  The  light  is  far  better  for  all  kinds  of  study  than  side  light,  from  its  quiet 
uniformity  and  equal  distribution. 

3.  For  smaller  houses,  the  lantern  may  be  square,  a  simple  form  easily 
constructed.     The  sides,  whether  square  or  octagonal,  should  incline  like  the 
drawing,  but  not  so  much  as  to  allow  water  condensed  on  its  inside  to  drop 
off,  but  run  down  on  the  inside  to  the  bottom,  which  should  be  so  formed  as 
to  conduct  it  out  by  a  small  aperture  at  each  bottom  pane  of  glass. 

4.  The  glass  required  to  light  a  school-room  equally  well  with  side  lights 
would  be  double  what  would  be  required  here,  and  the  lantern  would  be  se- 
cure from  common  accidents,  by  which  a  great  part  of  the  glass  is  every  year 
broken. 

5.  The  strong  propensity  which  scholars  have  to  look  out  by  a  side  win- 
dow would  be  mostly  prevented,  as  the  shutters  to  side  apertures  would  only 
be  opened  when  the  warm  weather  would  require  it  for  air,  but  never  in  cool 
weather,  and  therefore  no  glass  would  be  used.     The  shutters  being  made 
very  tight,  by  calking,  in  winter,  would  make  the  school-room  much  warmer 
than  has  been  common ;  and,  being  so  well  ventilated,  and  so  high  in  the  cen- 
ter, it  would  be  more  healthy. 

6.  The  stove,  furnace,  or  open  grate,  being  in  the  center  of  the  room,  has 
^great  advantages,  from  diffusing  the  heat  to  all  parts,  and  equally  to  all  the 

scholars ;  it  also  admits  the  pipe  to  go  perpendicularly  up,  without  any  incon- 
venience, and  it  greatly  facilitates  the  ventilation,  and  the  retention  or  escape 
of  heat,  by  means  of  the  sliding  cap  above. 

Construction. — Foundation  of  hard  stone,  laid  with  mor- 
tar;  the  superstructure  framed  and  covered  with  \\  plank, 
tongued,  grooved,  and  put  on  vertically,  with  a  fillet,  chamfered 


OCTAGONAL  PLAN  FOR  DISTRICT  SCHOOL-HOUSE.  75 

at  the  edges,  over  the  joint,  as  here  shown.  In  our  view,  a  rustic 
character  is  given  to  the  design  by  covering  the  sides  with  slabs ;  the  curved 
side  out,  tongued  and  grooved,  without  a  fillet  over  the  joint ;  or  formed  of 
logs  placed  vertically,  and  lathed  and  plastered  on  the  inside.  The  sides  di- 
minish slightly  upward.  A  rustic  porch  is  also  shown,  the  columns  of  cedar 
boles,  with  vines  trained  upon  them.  The  door  is  battened,  with  braces  upon 
the  outside,  curved  as  shown,  with  a  strip  around  the  edge.  It  is  four  feet 
wide,  seven  high,  in  two  folds,  one  half  to  be  used  in  inclement  weather. 
The  cornice  projects  two  feet  six  inches,  better  to  defend  the  boarding  ;  and 
may  show  the  ends  of  the  rafters.  Roof  covered  with  tin,  slate  or  shingles. 
Dripping  eaves  are  intended,  without  gutters.  The  roof  of  an  octagonal 
building  of  ordinary  dimensions  may  with  ease  and  perfect  safety  be  con- 
structed without  tie  beams  or  a  garret  floor  (which  is,  in  all  cases  of  school- 
houses,  waste  room,  very  much  increasing  the  exposure  to  fire,  as  well  as 
the  expense.)  The  wall-plates,  in  this  case,  become  ties,  and  must  be  well 
secured,  so  as  to  form  one  connected  hoop,  capable  of  counteracting  the  pres- 
sure outward  of  the  angular  rafters.  The  sides  of  the  roof  will  abut  at  top 
against  a  similar  timber  octagonal  frame,  immediately  at  the  foot  of  the  lan- 
tern cupola.  This  frame  must  be  sufficient  to  resist  the  pressure  inward  of 
the  roof  (which  is  greater  or  less,  as  the  roof  is  more  or  less  inclined  in  its 
pitch,)  in  the  same  manner  as  the  tie-plates  must  resist  the  pressure  outward. 
This  security  is  given  in  an  easy  and  cheap  manner  ;  and  may  be  given  en- 
tirely by  the  roof  boarding,  if  it  is  properly  nailed  to  the  angular  rafters,  and 
runs  horizontally  round  the  roof.  By  this  kind  of  roof,  great  additional  height 
is  given  to  the  room  by  camp-ceiling ;  that  is,  by  planing  the  rafters  and  roof- 
boards,  or  by  lathing  and  plastering  on  a  thin  half-inch  board  ceiling,  immedi- 
ately on  the  underside  of  the  rafters,  as  may  be  most  economically  perform- 
ed. This  extra  height  in  the  center  will  admit  of  low  side- walls,  from  seven 
to  ten  feet  in  the  clear,  according  to  the  size  and  importance  of  the  building, 
and,  at  the  same  time,  by  the  most  simple 
principle  of  philosophy,  conduct  the  heated 
fool  air  up  to  the  central  aperture,  which 
should  be  left  open  quite  round  the  pipe  of  the 
stove,  or  open  grate  standing  in  the  center  of 
the  room.  This  aperture  and  cap,  with  the 
ventilator,  is  shown  by  the  figure  adjoining, 
which  is  to  a  scale  of  half  an  inch  to  a  foot. 
The  ventilator  is  drawn  raised,  and  the  dot- 
ted lines  show  it  let  down  upon  the  roof.  It 
may  be  of  any  required  size,  say  two  feet 

ide  and  twelve  inches  high,  sliding  up  and 
-vn  between  the  stovepipe  and  an  outward 
•  se,  forming  a  cap  to  exclude  water.  This 
cap  may  be  pushed  up  or  let  down  by  a  rod 
affixed  to  the  under  edge,  and  lying  against 
the  smokepipe. 

In  the  design  given,  the  side-walls  are  ten 
feet  high,  and  the  lantern  fifteen  feet  above 
the  floor ;  eight  feet  in  diameter,  four  feet 
high.  The  sashes  may  open  for  additional  ventilation,  if  required,  by  turning 
on  lateral  pivots,  regulated  by  cords  attached  to  the  edges  above.  The 
breadth  of  each  desk  is  seventeen  inches,  with  a  shelf  beneath  for  books,  and 
an  opening  in  the  back  to  receive  a  slate.  The  highest  desks  are  twenty- 
seven  inches,  inclined  to  thirty,  and  the  front  forms  the  back  of  the  seat  be- 
tore  it  1  he  seat  is  ten  to  twelve  inches  wide,  fifteen  high,  and  each  pupil  is 
allowed  a  space  of  two  feet,  side  to  side. 

For  the  sake  of  variety,  we  have  given  a  design  in  the  pointed  style,  revised 

trom  a  sketch  by ,  an  amateur  in  architecture.     Any  rectangular  plan 

will  suit  it ;  and  the  principles  of  light  and  ventilation  dwelt  upon  in  the  de- 
cription  of  the  octagon  design,  may  be  adapted  to  this.     The  principal  light 


76 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


is  from  one  large  mullioned  window  in  the  rear  end.  The  side  openings  are 
for  air  in  summer— not  glazed,  but  closed  with  tight  shutters.  The  same  ven- 
"Jating  cap  is  shown,  and  height  is  gained  in  the  roof  by  framing  with  collar 
;,eams  set  up  four  or  five  feet  above  the  eaves.  The  sides,  if  not  of  brick  or 
stone,  may  be  boarded  vertically,  as  before  described. 

The  following  PLAN  OF  AN  OCTAGONAL  SCHOOL-HOUSE  represents  the  School 
of  Practice  annexed  to  St.  Mark's  Training  College,  near  London.    In  the  cen- 


ter (6)  is  the  fire-place  and  ventilating  apparatus.  On  the  four  sides  of  the  brick- 
work, forming  the  ventilating  apparatus  and  the  chimneys,  blackboards,  maps,  and 
musical  tablets,  are  suspended,  so  as  to  be  seen  by  the  classes  in  the  squares  or 
recesses  opposite.  Each  of  the  four  recesses  is  20  feet  square,  and  accommodates 
about  60  pupils,  divided  into  two  classes  separated  by  a  curtain  (c.)  In  one  is  a 
gallery  (d)  for  an  infant  class. 


PLAN  OF  VILLAGE  SCHOOL-GROUND  BY  DR.  DICK. 


77 


PLAN  OF  SCHOOL-ROOM  AND  GROUNDS  FOR  A  VILLAGE  SCHOOL. 
The  following  sketch  by  Dr.  Dick,  (author  of  Mental  Illumination),  of  the 
plan  and  accommodations  of  a  Village  School  is  copied  from  the  Pennsylvania 
Common  School  Journal,  vol.  1,  p.  120. 


A.  B— Covered  walks  for  exercise  in  winter  and  rainy  days.  C.  D.  E.  F- 
Plats  lor  flowers,  shrubs,  evergreens,  £nd  a  few  forest  trees.  G.  H— Circles 
with  twelve  compartments  each,  for  a  different  class  of  plants.  I.  K — Yards 
divided  with  a  wall,  with  suitable  accommodations  for  either  sex.  L — Portion 
of  ground,  smoothed  and  graveled  for  play-ground,  with  circular  swing,  &c. 
M— Room,  50  by  30  feet,  and  14  feet  high.  N.  N—  Class-rooms,  18  by  15. 
S.  T.— Closets  for  apparatus,  &c. 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


PLAN,  &c.,  OF  SCHOOL-ROOM  AND  GROUNDS  FOR  AN  INFANT  SCHOOL. 

The  following  plan  and  explanations  are  condensed  from  a  valuable  manu- 
al for  teachers  in  infant  and  primary  schools,  entitled  "  Infant  Education," 
one  of  Chambers'  Educational  Course,  published  at  Edinburgh,  in  1840.  It 
is  nearly  similar  to  the  plan  recommended  by  Mr.  Wilderspin  in  his  "  Infant 
School  System,"  and  his  "  Education  for  the  Young,"  and  by  Mr.  Stow,  in 
the  "  Manual  on  the  Training  System  for  Infant  and  Juvenile  Schools." 


IB 


©F 


Play  Ground—  80  ft.  by  CO. 


Flower  Border. 


f 

~     ^jg       .  o  ~  ^r  5 


£  b"g    05    <D  -S  ^f  O   •§ 

1     l||£||l§. 


WUJll 


PLANS  FOR  SCHOOLS  OF  DIFFERENT  GRADES.  79 

PLAN,  &c.,  OF  SCHOOL-ROOMS  roti  SCHOOLS  OF  DIFFERENT  GRADES  AND 

DIFFERENT    SYSTEMS    OF   INSTRUCTION. 

The  plans  and  remarks  for  arranging  school-rooms  thus  far,  are  more  par- 
ticularly applicable  to  comparatively  small,  or  country  schools,  where  the  in- 
struction and  government  is  conducted  by  one  teacher,  with  at  most  but  one 
assistant.  A  few  remarks  explanatory  of  the  terms  used  by  writers  on  edu- 
cation, when  speaking  of  systems  of  organization  and  instruction,  may  be 
useful  to  a  full  comprehension  of  the  principles  of  arrangement  embraced  in 
the  plans  which  follow. 

1.  The  individual  method  is  the  practice  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  of  calling 
up  each  scholar  by  himself  for  recitation,  or  giving  instruction  to  each  scholar 
in  his  seat,  or  calling  up  classes  and  hearing  each  scholar  individually,  which 
is  practically  the  same  thing.  This  method  will  answer  a  valuable  end  in  a 
very  small  school,  and  must  be  introduced  to  some  extent  in  our  small  country 
districts  where  there  are  children  of  every  age,  and  in  a  great  variety  of 
studies,  and  of  different  degrees  of  proficiency  in  each  study.  It  prevails, 
however,  altogether  too  generally,  even  in  larger  districts  which  admit  of  a 
classification  of  children  into  schools  of  different  grades,  and  of  the  children 
in  each  grade  of  schools.  This  classification  is  the  first  great  step  towards 
school  improvement. 

2.  In  the  simultaneous  method,  the  whole  school,  together,  or  in  succes- 
sive classes  carefully  arranged  according  to  their  intellectual  proficiency,  is 
instructed  directly  by  the  teacher.     Questions  and  explanations  are  addressed 
to  the  whole  school,  or  the  whole  class,  as  the  case  may  be,  and  answers  are 
given  by  all  together,  or  by  some  one  pointed  out  by  the  teacher,  while  all 
must  show  by  some   silent  sign,  there  ability  to  do  so.     This  method  keeps 
every  mind  attentive,  gives  confidence  to  the  timid,  admits  of  the  liveliness 
of  oral  and  interrogative  instruction,  economizes  the  time  and  labor  of  the 
teacher,  and  enlists  the  great  principle   of  sympathy  of  numbers  engaged  in 
common  pursuit.     The  extent  to  which  this  method  can  be  properly  carried, 
will  depend  not  so  much  OD  the  size  of  the  schools,  as  on  the  fact  that  the 
school  is  composed  of  children  in  the  same  studies,  and  of  the  same  proficien- 
cy.    This  method  ought  not  to  exclude  entirely  individual  instruction. 

"  When  the  number  of  children  increases  beyond  that  which  one  teacher  can 
conveniently  instruct  together,  or  in  successive  classes,  he  must  adopt  the 
monitorial,  the  mixed,  or  the  Facher  system,  for  such  classes  as  he  cannot 
superintend  or  teach. 

3.  By  the  monitorial  or  mutual  method,  is  understood  the  practice  of  em- 
ploying the  advanced  pupils,  and  many  of  them  very  young,  to  assist  in  the  su- 
pervision and  instruction  of  the  school,  or  of  particular  classes,  as  systematized 
by  Mr.  Lancaster,  or  Dr.  Bell,  and  as  pursued  in  the  schools  connected  with 
the  National,  and  the  British  and  Foreign  School  Societies,  England.     This 
method,  in  different  countries,  on  its  first  promulgation,  attracted  much  of 
public  favor,  on  account  of  its  economy,  especially  in  populous  districts. 
In  England    it  still    receives  the    sanction    of  the   two   great    Societies 
named  above.    In  Germany  it  was  never  adopted  in  the  public  schools.     In 
Holland  it  was  tried,  and  abandoned,  but  not  without  modifying  very  material- 
ly the  methods  of  instruction  before  pursued,  and  finally  leading  to  the  adoption 
of  the  mixed  method.     In  the  large  cities  of  the  United  States,  it  was  early 
adopted,  but  there  is  hardly  a  school  in  the  whole  country  now  conducted  on 
the  pure  monitorial  or  Lancasterian  system,   although  there  are  many  so 
called.    As  pursued  in  the  excellent  schools  of  the  New  York  Public  School 
Society,  it  is  nearly  the  mixed  method  as  understood  and  practiced  in  Hol- 
land, and  as  recommended  by  the  Committee  of  Council  on  Education  in 
England. 

With  these  modifications,  and  the  limitation  of  the  duties  of  the  younger 
monitors  to  keeping  the  registers,  heading  the  classes  in  marching  to  and 
from  their  class-rooms,  or  the  playground,  taking  charge  of  books,  &c.,  and  in 
other  matters  of  order  and  mechanical  arrangements,  the  monitorial  system 
might  be  advantageously  adopted  in  schools  of  every  grade,  and  of  any  sys- 
tem of  instruction. 


80  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

4.  The  mixed  method,  as  the  term  is  generally  understood,  is  a  modifica- 
tion of  the  simultaneous  and  monitorial  system,  in  which  the  principal  teacher, 
while  he  has  the  superintendence  at  all  times  of  the  whole  school,  and 
gives  general  instruction  at  certain  hours,  and  in  certain  studies,  to  the  whole 
school,  as  well  as  to  particular  classes,  employs  in  the  work  of  class  instruc- 
tion, assistants  who  are  better  instructed,  and,  as  a  general  rule,  are  older  than 
those  employed  as  monitors  under  the  Lancasterian  system,  and  are  not  yet 
qualified  to  have  the  whole  charge  of  a  school.  For  example,  in  Holland, 
"  every  school  produces  two  classes  of  assistants,  who  are  most  usefully  and 
economically  employed  in  aiding  him  in  the  management  and  instruction  of 
the  school,  and  may  be  called  pupil  teachers  and  assistant  teachers.  By 
pupil  teacher  is  meant  a  young  teacher,  in  the  first  instance  introduced  to  the 
notice  of  the  master  by  his  good  qualities,  as  one  of  the  best  instructed  and 
most  intelligent  of  the  children  ;  whose  attainments  and  skill  are  full  of 
promise  ;  and  who,  having  consented  to  remain  at  a  low  rate  of  remuneration 
in  the  school,  is  further  rewarded  by  being  enabled  to  avail  himself  of  the  op- 
portunities afforded  him  for  attaining  practical  skill  in  the  art  of  teaching,  by 
daily  practice  in  the  school,  and  by  the  gratuitous  superintendence  of  his 
reading  and  studies  by  the  master,  from  whom  he  receives  lessons  on  technical 
subjects  of  school  instruction  every  evening.  He  commonly  remains  in  the 
school  in  the  rank  of  pupil  teacher  from  the  age  of  14  to  that  of  17,  daily  im- 
bibing a  more  intimate  acquaintance  with  school  management,  and  all  the 
matter  of  instruction  in  elementary  schools,  and  he  then  proceeds,  by  attend- 
ance at  a  Normal  school,  or  by  further  proficiency  attained  by  his  own  exer- 
tions, to  qualify  himself  to  act  as  an  assistant  teacher.  The  assistant,  teacher 
prepared  by  these  preliminary  studies  in  the  elementary  Normal  school  com- 
mences his  duties  at  18  or  20  years  of  age. 

Assistants  thus  reared  in  the  atmosphere  of  schools  are  exceedingly  pre- 
ferable to  the  best  instructed  men  who  are  not  familiarized  by  daily  habitude 
with  the  minutest  details  of  school  management.  Such  assistants  constantly 
replenish  the  ranks  of  the  teachers  with  men,  all  the  hopes  of  whose  youth 
have  been  directed  towards  success  in  the  profession  of  a  schoolmaster,  and 
whose  greatest  ambition  is  to  be  distinguished  by  the  excellence  of  their 
schools. 

5.  The  Packer  system,  as  it  is  termed  in  Germany  where  it  is  most  popu- 
.ar,  consists  in  employing  separate  teachers  for  separate  studies,  or  as  we 
should  apply  it  here,  for  distinct  departments  of  government,  and  of  instruc- 
tion. This  is  the  principle  on  which  instruction  in  our  colleges  and  most  of 
our  higher  seminaries  is  given,  and  is  in  reality  the  mixed  method  carried  to 
its  highest  perfection.  The  vital  error  in  our  common  schools,  as  they  are 
now  organized,  is  the  practice  of  employing  one  teacher  for  the  government 
and  instruction  of  fifty  or  sixty  children  of  every  age,  of  both  sexes,  in  a 

freat  variety  of  studies,  and  in  different  stages  of  proficiency  in  each  study, 
t  is  very  rare  to  find  a  teacher  with  the  varied  qualifications,  which  success 
under  these  circumstances  presupposes,  while  it  is  not  very  difficult  to  find  a 
teacher  with  talent  and  experience  sufficient  to  teach  some  one  study,  or  a 
few  cognate  branches,  as  an  assistant,  acting  under  the  general  direction  of  a 
well  qualified  principal. 

Any  school  organization  and  arrangernents  would  be  imperfect  which  did 
not  include  the  systematic  training  and  instruction  of  very  young  children, 
especially  in  cities  and  manufacturing  villages.  Whatever  may  have  been 
done  by  others  at  an  earlier  date,  it  seems  to  be  generally  conceded  now,  that 
to  Mr.  Wilderspin  belongs  the  credit  of  having  reduced  infant  education  to 
the  science  which  it  now  is.  It  was  unfortunate  for  the  improvement  of  the 
quality  of  education  given  in  our  schools,  that  the  infant  school  system  was 
tried  in  this  country,  without  a  full  comprehension  of  its  legitimate  principles, 
methods  and  end,  and  that  the  experiment  was  abandoned  so  hastily.  Its 
partial  and  temporary  success,  however,  led  to  the  extension  and  improvement 
of  our  primary  schools,  and  this  circumstance  renders  the  success  of  any 
well  directed  effort  for  their  re-establishment  more  certain. 


PLANS  FOR  SCHOOLS  ON  THE  MONITORIAL  PLAN.  Ql 

PLANS,  &c.,  FOR  SCHOOLS  ON  THE  MONITORIAL  OR  MUTUAL  SYSTEM. 

The  "  Manual  of  the  System  of  Primary  Instruction  pursued  in  the  Model 
Schools  of  the  British  and  Foreign  School  Society,"  published  in  1839,  con- 
tains the  following  remarks  on  the  arrangement  for  schools  of  mutual  in- 
struction connected  with  that  Society. 

The  school-room  should  be  a  parallelogram,  the  length  about  twice  the 
breadth. 

The  height  of  the  walls  should  be  proportioned  to  the  length  of  the  room, 
and  may  be  varied  from  11  to  19  feet.  It  is  recommended  that  the  walls  be 
worked" fair  and  lime  whitened,  in  order  to  give  a  neat  and  clean  appearance, 
reflect  light,  and  contribute  to  the  preservation  of  health.  As  it  is  of  great 
importance  to  admit  as  much  light  as  possible  into  the  school,  there  must  be 
a  considerable  number  of  windows,  each  of  which  should  be  fixed  in  a  wooden 
frame,  and  movable  upon  pins  or  pivots  in  the  center,  so  that  by  drawing  the 
upper  part  into  the  room,  the  school  may  be  sufficiently  ventilated  in  hot 
weather— a  circumstance  of  the  utmost  importance  to  be  attended  to,  as  the 
health  of  the  pupils  in  a  great  measure  depends  upon  it. 

The  lower  parts  of  the  windows  should  be  at  least  6  feet  from  the  floor,  in 
order  that  the  light  may  not  be  inconvenient,  and  the  walls  be  at  liberty  for 
the  reading  lessons,  &c.,  which  are  to  be  attached  to  it ;  if  piers  are  required, 
they  should  be  on  the  outside  of  the  building. 

There  should  be  holes  in  the  roof,  or  in  the  wall  near  it,  to  let  foul  air 
escape.  This  may  be  effected  by  a  sufficient  number  of  tubes  so  contrived 
that  they  can  be  opened  or  shut  at  pleasure,  and  at  the  same  time  fresh  air  be 
admitted  from  the  outside  of  the  building  by  tubes  communicating  with  the 
lower  part  of  the  room. 

All  projections  in  the  walls,  as  well  as  pillars  to  support  the  roof,  ought  to 
be  avoided ;  for  they  interfere  with  the  arrangement  of  the  school,  and  ob- 
struct the  view  of  the  master  and  of  visiters.  But  if  pillars  are  necessary, 
they  should  be  placed  at  each  end  of  the  desks,  but  never  in  the  middle  of  the 
room. 

Roman  Cement,  cast  into  flags,  and  jointed  with  the  same  material,  forms  a 
good  flooring  ;  it  is  perfectly  dry  and  durable,  and  emits  but  little  sound. 

In  order  that  all  the  children  may  be  completely  seen  by  the  master,  it  is  of 
great  importance  that  the  floor  should  be  an  inclined  plane,  rising  one  foot  in 
twenty  from  the  master's  desk,  to  the  upper  end  of  the  room,  where  the  high- 
est or  eighth  class  is  situated. 

At  the  lower  end  is  the  platform,  elevated  in  proportion  to  the  length  of  the 
room  from  2  to  3  feet.  The  length  and  breadth  of  the  platform  must  be  in 
proportion  to  the  size  of  the  room. 

The  center  of  the  platform  is  the  place  for  the  master's  desk ;  and  on  each 
side  there  may  be  a  small  desk  for  the  principal  monitors. 

The  entrance  door  should  be  on  the  side  of  the  platform,  in  order  that  visit- 
ers on  entering  the  school,  may  have  a  commanding  view  of  all  the  children 
at  once. 

Whatever  be  the  size  of  the  school-room,  it  may  be  sufficiently  warmed  by 
means  of  one  or  two  stoves  placed  at  the  extremities  of  the  apartment.  But 
the  most  uniform  and  constant  temperature  is  obtained  by  steam,  when  con- 
ducted along  the  lower  parts  of  the  room  through  pipes,  or  by  heated  air  con- 
Teyed  into  the  room  through  tubes  communicating  with  a  stove,  which  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  close  casing  of  iron,  leaving  a  sufficient  space  for  a  current  of 
fresh  air  to  be  brought  in  through  a  tube  :  this,  coming  in  contact  with  the 
stove  and  the  outside  of  the  flue  or  iron  chimney  which  passes  through  the 
casing,  is  heated,  and  may  be  discharged  into  the  room  by  means  of  iron 
pipes.  This  method  has  been  found  to  answer  extremely  well. 

The  middle  of  the  room  is  occupied  by  the  forms  and  desk,  a  passage  being 
left  between  the  ends  of  the  forms  and  the  wall,  5  or  6  feet  broad,  where  the 
children  form  semicircles  for  reading. 

The  forms  and  desks  must  be  fixed  firmly  in  the  ground  ;  the  legs  or  sup- 
]K>rts  should  be  6  inches  broad  and  2  inches  thick,  but  cast  iron  legs  are  pre- 

6 


82 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


feraUe,  as  they  support  the  desk-board  with  equal  firmness,  occupy  less  room, 
and  have  a  neater  appearance  ;  their  number  of  course  will  be  in  proportion 
to  the  length  of  the  forms.  A  form  20  feet  long  will  require  five,  and  1 
must  be  so  placed,  that  the  supports  of  the  forms  may  not  be  immediately 
opposite  to  those  of  the  desks  ;  the  corners  of  the  desks  and  forms  are  to  be 
made  round,  in  order  that  the  children  may  not  hurt  themselves. 


The  general  rules  for  fitting  up 
school-rooms  are,— I.  One  foot  for 
the  space  or  passage  between  a  form 
and  the  next  desk. 

2.  Three  inches  for  the  horizontal 
space  between  a  desk  and  its  form. 

3.  Nine  inches  for  the  breadth  of  a 
desk,  and   six  for  the  breadth  of  a 
form. 

4.  Twenty-eight    inches    for    the 
height  of  a  desk,  and  sixteen  for  the 
height  of  a  form. 

5.  Eighteen  inches  in  length  of  the 
desk  for  every  child  to  occupy  while 
seated  upon  his  form. 

6.  From  five   to  six  feet  for  the 
passage  between  the  walls  and  the 
ends  of  the  forms  and  desks. 

The  semi-circles  for  the  reading 
classes  are  formed  opposite  to  the 
wall,  and  are  marked  by  an  incision 
in  the  floor. 

Dimensions  of  school-rooms  for 
300  children,  length,  62^  ft.,  breadth, 
34  feet ;  for  200  do.  55  by  28  ;  for 
150  do.  52|  feet  by  25. 

The  following  suggestions  are  abridged 
the  construction  and  arrangements  of 
school-rooms,  cjr.,"  published  by  the 
National  Society,  London. 

The  form  of  the  room  should  be  ob- 
long. If  the  room  is  built  large  to  ac- 
commodate boys  and  girls  together,  it 
may  be  divided  by  a  frame  partition, 
made  to  slide  upon  rollers  in  an  iron 
groove. 

The  superficial  area  should  include 
7  square  feet  for  each  child :  hence, 
50  children  will  require  350  ft ;  80  do. 
560  ft.  ;  100  do.  700  ft.,  &c. 

The  desks  are  generally  attached  to 
the  wall,  and  consist  of  a  horizontal 
ledge  two  or  three  inches  wide  to  re- 
ceive the  inkstand,  and  an  inclined 
plane  ten  inches  wide,  made  to  let 
down  by  hinges  and  movable  brackets. 
The  benches  or  forms  are  ten  inches 
wide,  and  supported  by  standards  of 
cast  iron. 

The  benches  for  the  classes  in  reci- 
tation, are  arranged  in  the  floor  with- 
out desks.  The  floor  is  entirely  level. 


School-room  for  56  scholars. 


from  the  "  General  Observations  on 


D 


D 


D 


*n 


D 


D 


PLANS  FOR  SCHOOLS  ON  THE  MIXED  SYSTEM. 


PLANS,  &c.,  FOR  SCHOOLS  ON  THE  MIXED  AND  FACHER  SYSTEM. 

The  two  plans  on  the  preceding  page,  for  schools  of  56  children,  arranged  on 
the  monitorial  or  mutual  system,  are  taken  from  the  "  Minutes  of  the  Com- 
mittee of  Council  on  Education,  1840,  relative  to  Plans  of  School-houses." 
In  each  plan,  given  in  the  "  Minutes,"  the  arrangement  of  the  school-room  is 
delineated,  1.  according  to  the  system  of  mutual  instruction,  distinguishing,  as 
above,  that  of  the  National  Society  from  that  of  the  British  and  Foreign 
School  Society  ;  and  2.  according  to  the  mixed  method,  in  which  a  modifica- 
tion of  the  mutual  system,  through  the  agency  of  better  instructed  and  paid 
monitors,  or  pupil  teachers,  is  employed  in  combination  with  the  simultaneous 
method.  Thus,  on  the  same  sheet,  with  the  school-room  for  56  children  on 
the  mutual  system,  there  is  also  the  following  plan  on  the  mixed  system. 

The  school-room  is  18  feet 
wide  by  31  long,  the  space  (20 
feet  by  12)  occupied  by  the 
desks  and  seats  being  divided 
into  two  parts,  one  for  boys  and 
the  other  for  girls,  by  a  mova- 
ble partition.  The  desks  and 
benches  are  arranged  on  a 
series  of  platforms,  rising  each 
6  inches  above  the  preceding 
one.  The  school,  if  taught  on 
the  mixed  method  recommended 
would  be  divided  into  four  class- 
es, the  boys  of  the  first  class 
occupying  the  first  bench  on  one 
side,  and  the  girls,  do.  on  the 
other,  &c.,  and  employing  one 
pupil  teacher  and  four  monitors. 
The  teacher  would  give  general 
instruction  from  the  platform  to 
the  whole  school,  and  hear  any 
class  separately,  arranged  in  a 
circle  around  him.  Two  other 
classes  might  be  heard  in  the 
entry,  or  class  rooms  attached. 
(The  plan  in  this  cut  is  modified 
slightly  from  the  original  inprint 
when  it  is  connected  with  the  dwelling  house.) 

The  ';  Minutes"  contain  four  series  of  plans,  each  presenting  a  different 
arrangement. 

In  the  first  series,  there  are  five  plans  for  schools  varying  from  30  to  56 
scholars,  each  with  the  classes  arranged  and  seated  as  above,  and  two  of  them 
presenting  additional  accommodations  for  an  infant  department,  one  of  20, 
and  the  other  of  30  children. 

In  the  second  series,  there  is  a  separate  range  of  desks  for  each  class,  with 
five  varieties  of  arrangements,  to  accommodate  60  to  100  children,  with  a 
separate  room  for  an  infant  school  in  two.  In  this  series  preference  is  ex- 
pressed for  the  plan  copied  from  the  model  school  of  the  Normal  School  of 
Dejon.  In  this  plan,  the  room  is  56  feet  by  16,  divided  into  two  apartments, 
each  28  by  16,  one  for  55  boys  and  the  other  for  55  girls.  Each  department 
is  divided  into  three  classes,  one  class  occupying  a  group  of  desks,  rising  on 
platforms  directly  in  front  of  the  teacher,  and  the  other  two,  one  on  the  left, 
and  the  other  on  the  right,  so  that  they  form  a  sort  of  amphitheater  around  the 
level  portion  of  the  floor  occupied  by  the  teacher.  Each  class  can  be  taught 
separately,  occupying  its  own  group  of  desks,  as  arranged  around  the  teacher's 
desk. 

In  the  third  series  the  accommodations  ascend  from  144  children,  and  150 
infants,  to  an  indefinitely  greater  number,  by  a  larger  or  smaller  number  of 
class-rooms  arranged  on  each  side  of  a  central  school-hall,  which  is  lighted  by 
sky-lights. 


84 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


The  following  plan  of  a  building 
exhibits  the  arrangement  of  a  school 
for  three  hundred  children,  including 
one  hundred  and  fifty  in  an  infant 
school.  A  is  a  private  room  or 
study  for  the  principal.  B  is  the 
school  hall  (54  ft.  by  27)  for  the  as- 
semblage of  the  whole  school  for 
morning  and  evening  prayers,  and 
other  general  exercises,  and  for  the 
occupancy  of  the  infant  school,  and 
C  the  gallery  of  the  latter.  D,  D, 
D,  D,  are  four  class-rooms,  (each 
19  by  17)  each  again  divided  by  a 
partition  into  two,  so  that  both  can 
be  superintended  by  one  assistant 
teacher,  and  one  pupil  teacher.  Each  subdivision  of  class-room  will  accom- 
modate about  40  scholars  each.  The  boys  and  the  girls  under  eleven  years 
arranged  according  to  attainments,  each  on  separate  benches  are  taught 
together,  while  those  over  eleven  years  are  taught  separately  in  class-rooms 
appropriated  to  each.  This  arrangement  affords  greater  facilities  for  giving 
to  the  instruction  of  the  older  children  such  a  particular  character  as  will 
prepare  them  for  the  application  of  their  knowledge  to  the  actual  duties  of 
life.  Such  knowledge  must  differ,  in  a  class  of  boys,  from  that  given  in  a 
class  of  girls. 

In  the  fourth  series,  the  same  principles  of  arrangements  are  observed,  ex- 
cept that  the  boys  and  girls  occupy  rooms  on  different  floors. 

In  all  of  the  plans  recommended  in  the  "  Minutes,"  of  the  Committee,  ac- 
commodations are  provided  for  1.  the  technical  instruction  of  the  children 
in  classes  carefully  arranged  according  to  their  intellectual  proficiency;  2.  for 
the  general  instruction  and  exercises  of  the  whole  school  ;  and,  3d,  for  the 
residence  of  the  teacher.  This  last  feature  is  common  to  almost  all  school 
houses  in  Europe,  and  the  use  of  the  same  constitutes  a  part  of  the  teacher's 
compensation.  In  the  larger  structures  of  Prussia  and  Saxony,  there  is  an 
entire  room  appropriated  to  each  class.  Thus  in  a  school-house  for  600  chil- 
dren, at  Berlin,  there  are  eight  rooms,  and  in  these  rooms  the  children  are 
classed  according  to  their  ages,  capacities  and  attainments.  Eight  masters 
are  employed,  besides  auxiliary  masters  for  special  purposes ;  and  two  mis- 
tresses, for  teaching  at  certain  hours  sewing  and  knitting  to  the  girls. 

The  "  Minutes"  contain  many  valuable  suggestions  respecting  the  location, 
ventilation,  and  warming  of  school-rooms,  similar  to  what  has  been  already 
printed.  The  following  section  exhibits  three  forms  of  desks.  The  stand 
ards  are  of  wrought  or  cast  iron. 


Desk  with  Lid. 


Simple  Desk. 


Desk  with  Shelf. 


PLANS  RECOMMENDED  BY  COMMITTEE  OF  COUNCIL.  35 

In  the  {:  Minutes  of  the  Committee  of  Council  on  Education  for 
1851-52,"  under  the  general  head  of  Organization  of  Schools,  the  follow- 
ing memorandum  and  diagrams  "respecting  the  organization  of  schools 
in  parallel  groups  of  benches  and  desks."  are  published  to  aid  commit- 
tees in  determining  the  internal  dimension  of  school-rooms,  and  the  best 
modes  of  fitting  them  up.  in  reference  to  schools  organized  on  the  plan 
recommended  by  the  committee. 

PRELIMINARY  REMARKS. 

"  Before  a  school -room  is  planned, — and  the  observation  applies  equally  to  al- 
terations in  the  internal  fittings  of  an  existing  school-room, — the  number  of  chil- 
dren who  are  likely  to  occupy  it, — the  number  of  classes  into  which  they  ought  to 
be  grouped, — whether  the  school  should  be  ';  mixed,  "  or  the  boys  and  the  girls 
should  be  in  different  rooms,  should  be  carefully  considered,  in  order  that  the  ar- 
rangements of  the  school  may  be  designed  accordingly. 

A.  Every  class,  when  in  operation,  requires  a  separate  teacber,  be  it  only  a 
monitor  acting  for  the  hour.     Without  some  such  provision  it  is  impossible  to 
keep  all  the  children  in  a  school  actively  employed  at  the  same  time. 

The  apprenticeship  of  pupil-teachers,  therefore,  is  merely  an  improved  metbod 
of  meeting  what  is,  under  any  circumstance,  a  necessity  of  the  case ;  and,  where 
sucb  assistants  are  maintained  at  the  public  expense,  it  becomes  of  increased  im- 
portance to  furnish  thorn  with  all  the  mechanical  appliances  tbat  have  been  found 
by  experience  to  be  the  best  calculated  to  give  effect  to  their  services. 

B.  The  main  end  to  be  attained  is  the  concentration  of  the  attention  of  the 
teacber  upon  his  own  separate  class,  and  of  the  class  upon  its  teacher,  to  the  ex- 
clusion of  distracting  sounds  and  objects,  and  without  obstruction  to  the  head  mas- 
ter's power  of  superintending  the  wbole  of  the  classes  and  their  teachers.     This 
concentration  would  be  effected  the  most  completely  if  eacb  teacher  held  his  class 
in  a  separate  room  ;  but  sucb  an  arrangement  would  be  inconsistent  with  a  proper 
superintendence,  and  would  be  open  to  other  objections.     The  common  school- 
room should,  therefore,  be  fitted  to  realize,  as  nearly  as  may  be,  the  combined  ad- 
vantages of  isolation  and  of  superintendence,  without  destroying  its  use  for  sucb 
purposes  as  may  require  a  large  apartment.     The  best  shape  (see  diagrams  an- 
nexed) is  an  oblong  about  eighteen  feet  in  width.     Groups  of  desks  are  arranged 
along  one  of  the  walls.     Each  group  is  divided  from  the  adjacent  group  or  groups 
by  an  alley,  in  which  a  light  curtain  can  be  drawn  forward  or  back.     Each  class, 
when  seated  in  a  group  of  desks,  is  thus  isolated  on  its  sides  from  the  rest  of  the 
school.     The  head  master,  seated  at  his  desk  placed  against  the  opposite  wall,  or 
standing  in  front  of  any  one  of  the  classes,  can  easily  superintend  the  school ; 
while  the  separate  teacher  of  each  class  stands  in  front  of  it,  where  the  vacant  floor 
allows  him  to  place  bis  easel  for  the  suspension  of  diagrams  and  the  use  of  the  black- 
board, or  to  draw  out  the  children  occasionly  from  their  desks,  and  to  instruct 
them  standing,  for  tbe  sake  of  relief  by  a  change  in  position.     The  seats  at  the 
desks  and  the  vacant  floor  in  front  of  each  group  are  both  needed,  and  should 
therefore  be  allowed  for  in  calculating  tbe  space  requisite  for  each  class. 

C.  By  drawing  back  the  curtain  between  two  groups  of  desks,  the  principal 
teacher  can  combine  two  classes  into  one  for  the  purpose  of  a  gallery  lesson  ;  or  a 
gallery  (doubling  the  depths  of  rows)  may  substituted  for  one  of  tbe  groups.     For 
simultaneous  instruction,  sucb  a  gallery  is  better  than  the  combination  of  two 
groups  by  the  withdrawal  of  the  intermediate  curtain  ;  because  the  combined 
width  of  the  two  groups  is  greater  than  will  allow  the  teacber  to  command  at  a 
glance  all  the  children  sitting  in  the  same  line.     It  is  advisable  tberefore  always  to 
provide  a  gallery. 

The  drawings  annexed  to  the  following  rules  purport  simply  to  sbow  tbe  best 
internal  dimensions  of  school-rooms,  and  the  best  mode  of  fitting  them  up,  the 
doors  and  windows  being  placed  accordingly.  The  combination  of  such  rooms 
with  others  of  the  same  kind,  with  teachers'  residences,  and  with  tbe  remainder 
of  tbe  school  premises,  as  well  as  the  elevations  which  may  thereby  be  obtained, 


gg  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

depending,  as  they  always  must,  upon  local  circumstances,  are  not  intended  to  bo 
here  shown.* 

The  Committe  of  Council  do  not  recommend  that  the  benches  and  desks  should 
be  immovably  fixed  to  the  floor  in  any  schools.  They  ought  to  be  so  coustructed 
as  to  admit  of  being  readily  removed  when  necessary,  but  not  so  as  to  be  easily 
pushed  out  pf  place  by  accident,  or  to  be  shaken  by  the  movements  of  the  children 
when  seated  at  them. 

The  reasons  of  the  following  rules  will  be  readily  inferred  from  these  preliminary 
explanations. 

1.  In  planning  a  school-room,  if  it  be  not  more  than  18  feet  in  width,  about  8 
or  9  square  feet  will  be  sufficient  for  each  child  in  actual  attendance.     If  the  width 
be  greater,  there  must  be  a  proportionate  increase  of  area  allotted  to  each  child. 

2.  A  school  not  receiving  infants  should  generally  be  divided  into  at  least  four 
classes.     (The  varying  capacities  of  children  between  seven  and  thirteen  years 
old  will  be  found  to  require  at  least  thus  much  subdivision.) 

3.  Parallel  benches  and  desks,  graduated  according  to  the  ages  of  the  children, 
should  be  provided  for  all  the  scholars  in  actual  attendance,  (see  Preliminary  Re- 
marks, B. ;)  and  therefore  a  school-room  should  contain  at  least  four  groups  of 
parallel  benches  and  desks.     (See  Rule  2.) 

4.  A  group  should  not  contain  more  than  three  rows  of  benches  and  desks, 
(otherwise  the  distance  of  the  last  row  is  to  great  for  the  teacher  to  see  the 
children's  slates,  and  he  must  also  raise  his  voice  to  a  pitch  which  is  exhausting 
to  himself  and  adds  inconveniently  to  the  general  noise.) 

5.  As  a  general  rule,  no  group  of  benches  and  desks  should  accommodate  more 
than  twenty-four  children,  i.  e.  eight  children  in  each  of  the  three  rows  of  the 
group,  (otherwise  the  width  is  too  great.     See  Preliminary  Remarks,  C.) 

6.  The  proper  lengths  are  7  feet  6  inches  for  five  children  in  a  row  ;  9  feet  for 
six  in  a  row ;  10  feet  6  inches  for  seven  in  a  row ;  12  feet  for  eight  in  a  row ; 
t.  e.  18  inches  for  each  child. 

[The  other  dimensions  and  details  are  shown  in  the  annexed  drawings.] 

7.  Each  group  of  desks  must  be  separated  from  the  contiguous  group,  either  by 
an  alley  for  the  passage  of  the  children,  or  by  a  space  sufficient  for  drawing  and 
withdrawing  the  curtains. 

It  will  be  sufficient  to  provide  an  alley  for  the  passage  of  children  at  one  end 
only  of  each  group.  At  the  other  end  a  space  of  3  inches  will  suffice  for  drawing 
and  withdrawing  the  curtains. 

[Alleys  intended  for  the  passage  of  children  must  not  be  less  than  18  inches 
wide  in  the  smallest  school,  and  need  not  be  more  than  2  feet  wide  in  any  school, 
unless  where  a  door  or  fireplace  requires  a  greater  interval.] 

8.  The  best  width  for  a  school-room,  intended  to  accommodate  any  number  of 
children  between  48  and  144,  is  17  or  18  feet.     This  gives  sufficient  space  for 
each  group  of  benches  and  desks  to  be  ranged  (with  its  depth  of  three  rows)  along 
one  wall,  for  the  teachers  to  stand  at  a  proper  distance  from  their  classes,  arid  for 
the  classes  to  be  drawn  out,  when  necessary,  in  front  of  the  desks  around  the  mas- 
ter or  pupil-teachers.     (No  additional  accommodation  being  gained  by  greater 
width  in  the  room,  the  cost  of  such  an  increase  in  the  dimensions  is  thrown 
away.) 

9.  Where  the  number  of  children  to  be  accommodated  is  too  great  for  them  to 
be  arranged  in  five,  or  at  most,  six  groups,  an  additional  school-room  should  be 
built,  and  placed  under  the  charge  of  an  additional  schoolmaster,  who  may.  how- 
ever, be  subordinate  to  the  head  master,  or  a  large  school  may  be  built  on  the  plan 
of  diagram  No.  6.     Where  neither  of  these  arrangements  can  be  accomplished, 
the  school-room  should  not  be  less  than  32  feet  wide,  and  the  groups  should  be 
arranged  along  both  sides  of  the  room,  the  children  in  all  cases  facing  the  centre. 
(But  such  an  arrangement  is  very  inferior  to  that  of  the  single  row  along  one 
wall.     The  opposite  classes  see  each  other,  and  their  several  teachers  have  to 
stand  too  close  together.     See  Preliminary  Remarks,  B.) 

10.  A  curtain,  capable  of  being  readily  drawn  and  withdrawn,  should  separate 

*  Specimen  of  the  plans  recommended  by  the  committee,  combining  the  foregoing  object 
may  be  seen  on  page 


PLANS  RECOMMENDED  BY  COMMITTEE  OF  COUNCIL.        87 

the  several  groups ;  but  not  so  as,  when  drawn,  to  project  into  the  room  more  than 
4  inches  in  front  of  the  foremost  desk. 

1 1 .  If  the  school-room  be  lighted  from  above,  which  is  the  best  possible  mode, 
great  care  should  be  taken  to  prevent  the  skylights  from  leaking,  and  to  provide 
channels  for  the  water  which  the  condensation  of  the  children's  breath  will  deposit 
on  the  inside  of  the  glass. 

12.  All  sashes,  both  upper  and  lower,  should  be  hung ;  and  all  windows,  whether 
in  the  roof  or  elsewhere,  should  be  made  to  open. 

13.  It  is  better  to  have  a  few  large  and  well  placed  windows  than  many  small 
ones. 

14.  It  is  important  to  provide  that  the  faces  of  the  children  and  teachers,  and  also 
the  blackboards  and  diagrams,  should  be  placed  in  full  clear  light. 

15.  If  the  school-room  be  not  lighted  from  above,  there  should  be  windows,  if 
possible,  at  each  end  and  on  one  side  of  the  room.     The  windows  should  be  car- 
ried up  as  high  as  possible ;  and  those  which  are  placed  at  the  backs  of  the  chil- 
dren, an  arrangement  which  should  be  avoided  as  far  as  possible,  should  not  come 
down  within  5  feet  6  inches,  or  at  least  5  feet,  from  the  floor. 

16.  "When  the  benches  and  desks  are  arranged  on  both  sides  of  the  room,  it 
should  be  lighted  from  above,  or  there  should  be,  if  possible,  windows  in  each  of 
the  side  walls. 

17.  Except  when  a  school-room  is  very  broad,  there  should   be  no  fireplace  in 
the  center  of  an  end  wall. 

[A.  good  place  for  a  fireplace  is  under  a  window.] 

18.  The  desks  should  be  either  quite  flat  or  very  slightly  inclined.     The  objec- 
tions to  the  inclined  desks  are,  that  pencils,  pens,  &c.,  are  constantly  slipping  from 
it,  and  that  it  can  not  be  conveniently  used  as  a  table.     The  objection  to  the  flat 
desk  is,  that  it  obliges  the  children  to  stoop.     A  raised  ledge  in  front  of  a  desk 
interferes  with  the  arm  in  writing. 

19.  A  large  gallery  for  the  simultaneous  instruction  of  two  or  more  classes,  with- 
out desks,  may  advantageously  be  provided  in  a  class-room  or  at  one  end  of  the 
school-room.     Such  a  gallery  may  be  better  placed  along  than  across  the  end  of 
the  school-room,  for  the  reason  stated  in  the  Preliminary  Remarks,  B. 

20.  No  such  gallery,  nor  any  gallery  in  an  infant  school-room,  should  be  placed 
in  front  of  a  window,  unless  it  be  very  high  up  above  the  heads  of  the  children 
when  they  stand  on  the  top  row  of  the  gallery. 

21.  No  infant  gallery  should  hold  more  than  eighty  or  ninety  infants. 

22.  An  infant  school  should  (besides  a  large  gallery)  have  a  small  group  of 
benches  and  desks,  for  the  occasional  use  of  the  elder  infants. 

23.  The  alleys  leading  to  a  gallery  should  be  at  its  sides,  not  in  its  center.     (See 
Rules  5  and  6.) 

24.  Great  care  should  be  taken  that  the  valves  which  admit  the  fresh  air  into 
the  school-room  should  be  placed  so  as  not  to  create  draft  where  the  teachers  and 
children  sit. 

25.  An  easel  and  a  blackboard  should  be  provided  for  each  class,  and  a  larger 
blackboard  for  the  gallery. 

26.  The  dimensions  shown  in  the  drawings  annexed  to  this  memorandum,  are 
adapted  to  children  of  from  11  to  12  years  of  age.     It  is  very  important  that 
these  dimensions  should  be  graduated  to  suit  the  sizes  of  the  elder  and  younger 
children  in  a  school.  " 

Although  the  following  diagrams  of  the  internal  arrangements  of 
school-rooms  are  drawn  in  reference  to  schools  organized  on  a  peculiar 
plan,  as  set  forth  in  the  foregoing  memorandum,  they  will  suggest  valu- 
able hints  to  a  judicious  architect  or  committee.  There  are  some  features 
in  them,  which  we  do  not  approve,  and  we  think  will  not  be  found  in 
practice  as  convenient  as  several  of  the  more  recent  plans  embodied  in 
this  volume. 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


No.  1 .     A  School  for  48  children  of  one  sex,  in  4  classes  ;  with  a  class-room 
having  a  gallery  capable  of  containing  two  of  the  classes. 


CURTAIN  TO  DRAW  UP 
AND  BACK 


— G:  o"—-t'.6"—G'.  o'-~  &-—<?:  0'~-s.ff"—6:o 


No.  2.     A  School  for  48  boys  and  girls,  in  4  classes ;  with  a  class-room 
a  gallery  capable  of  containing  two  of  the  classes. 


G'.O 


6'.0"       3"        Cr. 0"        I'.G*     ~0T0!r 
3t3'X.  16'.      12'  HIGH 

^qRMER_gyE_R 
ADDITIONAL  LICtJT 


PLANS  OF  COMMITTEE  OF  COUNCIL. 


89 


No.  3.     A  School  for  72  children  of  one  sex,  in  classes ;  with  a  class-room 
having  a  gallery  capable  of  containing  two  of  the  classes. 


No.  4.    A  School  for  72  boys  and  girls,  in  4  classes ;  with  a  class-room  having 
a  gallery  capable  of  containing  two  of  the  classes. 


90 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


No.  5.     A  School  for  120  children  of  one  sex,  in  5  classes  5  with  a  class-room 
having  a  gallery  capable  of  containing  two  of  the  classes. 


-12'.  0S—-XG—-ZS'.0-—J'.ff—-1S.O-—3  — -Iff.  0- /.', 

1W  ff'X  fS'.        12  Fr  HICH 


No.  6.    A  School  for  168  children  of  one  sex,  in  7  classes,  with  a  gallery  ;  and 
with  a  class-room  having  a  gallery  capable  of  containing  two  of  the  classes. 


PLANS  OF  COMMITTEE  OF  COUNCIL. 


91 


No.  7.     A  School  for  240  children  of  one  sex,  in  8  classes,  and  a  gallery ;  with 
a  class-room  having  also  a  gallery  capable  of  containing  two  of  the  classes. 


^ 

1--— 12'— —3?— 12'- 1.0'— -72-— -S-—-121-—  --3-B        ";"'-',w^'''"~7"     ; 


No.  8.  Infant  Schools  for  100  infants,  with  a  gallery  capable  of  accommoda- 
ting 72  infants,  and  a  group  of  benches  and  desks  capable  of  accommodating  15 
infants. 


92  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

PLAN  OF  A  VILLAGE  SCHOOL-HOUSE  IN  ENGLAND. 

Fig.  4. 


^  are  indebted  to  A.  J.  Downing,  Esq.  for  the  reduced  cuts  of  a  plan  by  J. 
Kendal,  for  a  National  School  near  Brentwood,  in  England.  It  affords  accom- 
modation for  sixty  children.  The  door  is  sheltered  by  a  porch,  and  on  the 
other  side  is  a  covered  waiting-place  for  the  children  coming  before  school- 
hours.  The  cost,  with  the  belfry,  was  $750.  A  house  in  this  old  English 
domestic  character  would  give  a  pleasing  variety  to  the  everlasting  sameness  of 
our  rural  school  architecture. 


Fig.  5.    GROUND  PLAN. 


PLANS  FOR  RURAL  AND  VILLAGE  SCHOOLS.  93 

PLANS   FOR   RURAL   TOWNS  AND  VILLAGES,  RECOMMENDED   BY  THE 
MASSACHUSETTS   BOARD  OF  EDUCATION. 

The  following  Plans  were  prepared  by  Mr.  Leach,  one  of  the  agents 
employed  by  the  Board  of  Education  in  Massachusetts  to  co-operate 
with  their  Secretary  in  visiting  schools  in  different  towns,  and  in  con- 
ferring with  school  officers  and  teachers  in  regard  to  the  construction 
and  condition  of  school-houses,  the  teaching  and  governing  of  the 
schools,  arid  the  action  of  the  towns  in  relation  to  them. 
MODE  OF  VENTILATION. 

By  your  particular  direction,  I  have  given  considerable  attention  to  the  sub- 
ject of  ventilation.  In  all  my  examination,  I  have  found  but  few  houses  well 
ventilated.  In  a  large  majority  of  cases,  there  are  no  means  of  ventilating  but  by 
opening  the  windows  ancT  doors.  And  where  attempts  have  been  made,  it  has 
been  but  imperfectly  accomplished.  The  ventilating  tubes  have  almost  invariably 
been  too  small.  As  the  result  of  my  investigations,  I  would  make  the  following 
suggestions.  To  ventilate  a  room  properly  containing  fifty  persons,  the  ventilat- 
ing tube  should  not  be  less  than  fifteen  square  inches  inside.  The  tube  should  be 
made  of  very  thin  boards,  well  seasoned,  with  a  smooth  inside  surface,  and  it 
should  be  perfectly  tight.  It  should  be  wholly  within  the  room,  and  opposite  to 
the  register  or  stove.  There  should  be  an  opening  at  the  top  and  bottom.  The 
ventilating  tubes  should  be  connected  in  the  attic,  and  conducted  through  the 
roof,  and  furnished  with  a  suitable  cap.  Another  method,  which  is  far  prefera- 
ble, is  as  follows :  The  smoke  pipes  may  be  conducted  into  a  cast  iron  pipe  rest- 
ing on  soap-stone  in  the  attic  floor,  instead  of  a  chimney  built  from  the  bottom  of 
the  cellar.  This  cast  iron  pipe  may  be  surrounded  by  a  brick  chimney  into  which 
the  ventilating  tubes  should  lead.  The  space  in  the  chimney  should  be  equal  to 
the  spaces  in  the  tubes,  after  making  suitable  allowance  for  the  pipe,  and  the  in- 
crease of  friction.  By  this  arrangement,  the  air  in  the  tubes  will  be  rarefied,  and 
a  rapid  current  of  air  produced.  All  attempts  to  ventilate  rooms  with  tubes  in 
the  wall,  or  of  less  size  than  fourteen  or  fifteen  square  inches  for  fifty  persons,  have, 
so  far  as  I  have  examined,  failed.  No  artificial  means  will  secure  good  ventilation 
when  the  temperature  of  the  room  and  that  of  the  outer  air  are  nearly  the  same, 
without  the  application  of  heat  to  the  air  in  the  tubes.  Unless  the  air  is  heated 
before  being  admitted  into  the  room,  it  should  be  let  in  at  the  top,  and  not  at  the 
bottom,  and  always  through  a  large  number  of  small  apertures.  The  quantity  of 
pure  air  admitted  must  always  be  equal  to  that  which  is  to  be  forced  out. 

The  expense  of  introducing  a  proper  ventilating  apparatus  into  houses  already 
built  in  the  country  towns,  will  vary  from  twenty-five  to  a  hundred  dollars,  ac- 
cording to  the  size  and  character  of  the  house. 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  MAKING   BLACKBOARDS. 

To  100  pounds  of  common  mortar,  add  25  pounds  of  calcined  plaster;  to  this 
add  twelve  papers,  of  the  largest  size,  of  lampblack.  This  is  to  be  put  on  as  a  skim 
coat,  one  sixth  of  an  inch  thick  to  rough  plastering,  and  should  be  made  as  smooth 
as  possible  by  hard  rubbing.  It  may  also  be  put  on  to  old  plastering,  after  it  has 
been  thoroughly  raked  and  prepared.  This  should  be  covered  with  a  coat  of 
paint,  made  in  the  following  manner :  To  one  quart  of  spirits,  add  one  gill  of 
boiled  oil.  To  this  add  one  of  the  largest  papers  of  lampblack,  after  it  has  been 
thoroughly  mixed  with  spirits.  To  this  add  one  pound  of  the  finest  flour  of 
emery.  This  paint  may  also  be  put  on  boards  or  canvas.  This  should  be  con- 
stantly stirred,  when  used,  to  prevent  the  emery  from  settling.  If  too  much  oil, 
or  if  any  varnish  be  used,  the  board  will  become  more  or  less  glazed  and  unfit  for 
use.  Some  prefer  to  have  the  board  behind  the  teacher  green  or  bronze,  which 
is  more  grateful  to  the  eye.  This  can  be  done  by  using  chrome  green  instead 
of  lampblack.  None  but  the  very  finest  flour  of  emery  should  be  used.  Some 
prefer  pulverized  pumice-stone  to  emery. 

NOTE. — All  the  Plans  are  drawn  on  a  scale  of  ten  feet  to  an  inch,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  Numbers  9  and  10,  which  are  drawn  on  a  scale  of  twelve  feet  to  an  inch. 


04 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


PJLAN  No.   1,  FOR  RURAL  OR  VILLAGE  SCHOOL-HOUSE. 
SO  A. 


d 


d 


d 


f 


a, 


14  /  8. 


14*8 


This  plan  represents  the  ground  floor  of  a  school-house  one  story  high,  46  by 
30  feet  on  the  inside. 

e,  c — Entries,  one  for  each  sex,  14  by  8  feet,  a — Anteroom,  14  by  14  feet. 
This  may  be  used  as  ail  assembly-room  for  the  pupils  before  school  and  at  noon, 
or  for  a  recitation-room  and  library.  Where  it  is  practicable,  there  should  be 
separate  rooms  for  the  pupils  to  assemble  in.  This  can  usually  be  provided  in  the 
basement  at  a  small  expense,  p — Teacher's  platform,  14  feet  long  and  6  feet  wide, 
and  7  or  eight  inches  high.  Behind  the  teacher's  desk  there  should  always  be  a 
blackboard  the  whole  length  of  the  platform,  from  4  to  5  feet  wide,  the  lower 
edge  of  which  should  be  3^  feet  from  the  top  of  the  platform.  /,  / — Aisles.  The 
inner  aisles  should  be  from"  16  to  18  inches  wide.  The  outer  aisles  from  36  to  48 
inches,  d,  d,  d,  d — Seats  for  two  pupils  each.  The  desks  should  be  from  40  to  48 
inches  long ;  and  the  desks  and  seats  should  be  from  30  to  36  inches  wide,  and 
adapted  in  height,  to  the  age  of  the  pupils,  c — Closet  for  maps,  books  of  refer- 
ence, &c.  s — Stove.  The  dotted  lines  an  air-box,  10  inches  square,  to  admit 
pure  air.  t),  v — Ventilating  tubes,  12  by  10  inches  each.  They  should  be  placed 
within  the  room,  and  made  of  thin  boards,  perfectly  tight,  and  smooth  on  the  in- 
side. They  should  be  united  in  the  attic,  and  lead  through  the  roof. 


PLANS  FOR  RURAL  AND  VILLAGE  SCHOOLS. 


95 


i.  i — Settees  for  recitations,     o,  o,  o,  o — Doors,     u,  u,  u — Windows. 

Blackboards  should  be  placed  entirely  around  the  room  except  in  the  narrow 
spaces  between  the  windows.  They  should  be  from  4  to  5  feet  wide  for  large 
scholars,  and  3  or  3^  for  small  ones.  The  lower  edge  should  be  from  2^  to  3  feet 
from  the  floor.  Every  school-house  designed  for  both  sexes  should  have  two 
entrances,  one  for  each  sex.  There  should  also  be  two  separate  backyards,  in- 
closed with  a  high  tight  fence.  The  entrance  to  the  water-closets  should  be 
through  the  basement,  or  through  doors  on  the  outside  which  should  be  kept 
locked.  This  is  a  very  important  arrangement,  and  has  too  generally  been  over- 
looked. The  best  interest  of  a  school  can  not  be  secured  without  it.  It  ia  desira- 
ble that  there  should  be  a  basement  under  every  school-house.  The  bottom  may 
be  covered  with  a  floor,  with  brick,  or  with  hydraulic  cement.  The  basement 
should  be  divided  into  two  parts,  one  for  each  sex.  There  should  be  a  well  in 
the  center,  and  a  pump  and  sink  in  each  part.  A  part  of  it  can  conveniently  be 
used  for  storing  fuel,  &c.  The  best  mode  of  heating  a  school-room  is  by  coal  or 
wood  furnaces  in  the  basement.  When  stoves  are  used,  the  pipe  may  be  con- 
ducted through  the  floors,  well  protected  by  soap-stone,  into  a  chimney  in  the 
attic.  In  this  way  valuable  room  may  be  saved,  which  would  otherwise  be  occu- 
pied by  the  chimney.  It  is  also  desirable  that  the  teacher's  desk  be  placed  at  the 
end  of  the  building  at  which  the  pupils  enter. 

Single  desks  are  generally  to  be  preferred  to  double  ones.  The  whole  expense 
for  room  and  desks  is  about  twenty  per  cent.  more.  When  practicable,  the  house 
should  be  so  placed,  that  pupils  as  they  sit,  may  face  the  north.  In  rooms  to  be 
used  in  summer  as  well  as  winter,  it  would  be  better  that  there  should  be  no  win- 
dows* on  the  south.  In  all  cases  there  should  be  outside  or  inside  blinds.  Out- 
side blinds  are  to  be  preferred  to  keep  a  room  cool.  Inside  blinds  can  be  more 
easily  managed  to  modify  the  light.  The  gable  end  should  also  be  toward  the 
south,  since  by  this  arrangement  the  roofs  would  be  much  less  heated  in  summer. 
On  the  ceiling  of  every  school-room  the  four  points  of  the  compass  should  be 
painted  in  distinct  colors,  with  letters  designating  the  several  points. 

PLAN  No.  2. 
36ft. 


G 


This  plan  is  essentially  the  same  as  the  preceding  one,  excepting  in  size.  It  is  36 
by  26  feet  inside.  This  can  be  adopted  when  it  is  desirable  to  sacrifice  conveni- 
ence for  economy.  It  will  be  perceived  that  the  outer  aisles  are  much  narrower 


*  It  will  be  better  to  provide  curtains  and  shutters  to  modify,  rather  than  a  blank  wall  to 
exclude  altogether  the  cheerful  sunlight.— H.  B. 


96 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


than  those  in  the  Plan  Number  One.  Wide  aisles  are  much  more  convenient  for 
scholars  to  stand  in  during  recitations,  and  to  work  at  the  blackboard  without  being 
annoyed  by  others  passing  them.  It  is  also  important  that  the  aisles  be  wide 
enough  to  accommodate  settees  on  days  of  examination,  &c. 

PLAN  No.  3. 
30ft. 


This  represents  the  ground  floor  of  a  building  two  stories  high.  It  is  48  by  30 
feet  inside.  The  description  of  Plan  Number  One  will  apply  to  this,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  entries. 

e,  e — Entries,  one  for  each  sex,  1 6  by  8  feet,  a — Anteroom.  The  one  on  the 
lower  floor  communicating  with  the  boys'  entry,  the  upper  one  communicating 
with  the  girls'  entry.  There  never  should  be  winding  stairs  in  a  school-house. 
They  should  be  made  as  represented  on  the  plan,  or  in  some  form  with  broad 
steps.  The  landing  place  should  never  be  directly  opposite  the  door.  The  rooms 
should  be  from  11  to  13  feet  in  height.  In  large  schools  the  outside  door  should 
swing  outward,  to  enable  the  pupils  to  rush  out  easily  in  case  of  an  alarm. 


PLANS  FOR  RURAL  AND  VILLAGE  SCHOOLS. 


97 


PLAN  No.  4. 
28ft, 


Tliis  differs  from  Number  Three  chiefly  in  its  size.  Its  dimensions  are  40  by 
S8  feet  inside.  It  has  no  anteroom,  and  the  entrances  are  on  the  sides.  There 
should  always  be  a  basement  under  houses  constructed  after  this  plan.  This 
should  be  divided  into  two  rooms,  which  should  be  well  finished,  warmed,  and 
lighted. 


98 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


PLAN  No.  5. 


35X21. 

V 

u 

1 

1      I      1 

\     I 

1                      1 

1      1      1 

P 

P 

1      1 

I 

1 

1 

1      1 

J 

1 

1      1 

1      I 

| 

1      1      1 

1      1 

1 

1      1      I 

1      1 

1 

1 

1      1      1 

J      1 

1 

1 

I      1      1 

1      1 

1 

1   ^ 

X 

1 

1 

1      1      1 

1     1 

J     rA 

1           1          1 

1      1      1 

1     1 

1 

I      I      1 

1     1 

1 

1 

1      1      1 

1     I 

_| 

J 

c 

C 

•B 

a 
15X12. 

d 

15X  12. 

i^ 

e 

15X9.' 

e 

15X9. 

This  represents  the  lower  room  of  a  building  two  stories  high.  Its  dimensions 
are  50  by  42  feet  inside,  and  contains  two  rooms  and  two  anterooms  that  may  be 
used  for  recitations •,  and  two  entries,  one  for  each  sex.  The  doors  are  at  the 
end,  but  when  it  is  practicable  it  would  be  better  to  have  them  on  the  side. 

e,  e — Entries,  15  by  9  feet  each,  a,  a — Ante-rooms,  15  by  12  feet  each. 
c,  c — Closets  for  books  and  apparatus.  The  windows  should  be  so  placed  as  not 
to  be  directly  opposite  to  the  teacher.  Neither  pupils  nor  teachers  should  be  com- 
pelled to  face  a  strong  light. 


PLANS  FOR  RURAL  AND  VILLAGE  SCHOOLS. 

PLAN  No.  6. 
44ft. 


This  is  a  plan  of  the  upper  room  of  a  building,  the  lower  floor  of  which  has 
been  described  in  Number  Five.  It  contains  one  school-room,  44  feet  by  31,  two 
recitation  rooms,  and  two  entries.  The  school-room  will  accommodate  96  pupils. 
The  recitation  rooms  can  be  used  as  an  assembly-room  by  the  pupils,  in  the  morn- 
ing and  at  noon.  There  are  many  serious  objections  to  large  rooms,  excepting  for 
advanced  pupils,  who  learn  most  of  their  lessons  out  of  school.  The  testimony  of 
nearly  all  experienced  teachers  is  against  large  rooms  for  schools  in  which  there 
are  numerous  classes. 


100 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


16X11. 


This  is  a  plan  of  the  lower  floor  of  a  building  48  by  44  feet.  It  contains  two  rooms 
for  primary  or  intermediate  scholars.  Two  modes  of  arranging  the  seats  are  pre- 
sented, that  either  may  be  adopted.  The  entrances  are  on  the  sides.  The  form 
of  the  stairs  differs  from  the  preceding  plans,  and  has  some  advantages.  There 
are  two  anterooms,  16  by  11  feet  each. 


PLANS  FOR  RURAL  AND  VILLAGE  SCHOOLS. 


101 


PLAN  No.  8. 


The  dimensions  of  the  building  represented  by  this  plan  are  52  by  40  feet 
inside.  There  are  two  rooms  on  the  lower  floor,  for  small  scholars.  The  en- 
trancea  are  on  the  sides.  There  are  two  anterooms,  with  closets,  in  which  there 
is  a  sink  and  a  pump,  communicating  with  each.  This  and  Number  Nine  are 
regarded  as  the  best  plans  for  houses  two  stories  high,  containing  four  rooms  each. 
There  are  many  advantages  in  having  the  stairs  as  represented  on  the  plan,  as 
they  occupy  less  room  and  there  will  be  much  less  disturbance  by  pupils  going 
up  and  down. 


102 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


PLAN  No.  9. 
48ft. 


80*30 


This  is  similar  in  its  outline  to  Number  Eight.  Its  dimensions  are  60  by  48 
feet  inside.  The  entries,  anterooms,  and  closets,  are  the  same  in  form  as  Num- 
ber Eight.  It  has  also  a  large  recitation  room  or  library,  (marked  L]  communi- 
cating with  both  rooms.  This  combines  more  advantages,  perhaps,  than  are  to 
be  found  in  any  of  the  plans  presented.  If  the  building  is  built  two  stories  and  a 
half  high,  a  large  upper  room  might  be  finished  for  assembling  the  whole  school 
at  stated  times,  or  one  or  both  of  the  partitions  might  be  made  to  slide  up  by 
weights. 


PLANS  FOR  RURAL  AND  VILLAGE  SCHOOLS. 


103 


PLAN  No.  10. 
45  ft. 


The  dimensions  of  this  building  are  60  by  45  feet  inside.  The  entrances  are 
on  the  end.  The  form  of  the  stairs  is  similar  to  Number  Seven.  In  other  ro- 
specte  it  resemb'es  plans  already  described. 


104 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 
FLAN  No.  11. 
40ft 


The  dimensions  of  this  building  are  60  feet  by  40.  It  differs  from  the  preceding 
chiefly  in  the  size  of  the  entries,  and  in  the  form  of  the  stairs ;  also,  in  having 
much  smaller  anterooms.  The  entrances  are  also  on  the  sides. 


PLANS  FOR  RURAL  AND  VILLAGE  SCHOOLS. 
PLAN  No.  12. 


105 


An  excellent  plan,  when  furnished  with  a  suitable  basement,  where  pupils  can 
assemble  before  and  after  school,  and  at  recess,  when  the  weather  is  unpleasant. 
The  sexes  enter  on  the  opposite  sides  of  the  house.  The  entrances  to  the  water- 
closets  should  be  from  the  basement. 

Plan  No.  13,  represents  the  lower  floor  of  a  building,  with  three  rooms  on  the 
lower  floor.  The  arrangements  of  the  rooms  are  the  same  as  already  described. 


106 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 
PLAN  No.  13. 


4  2,  ft. 


ULrAnl»YiLnii  ur  ruoui/  momui/i 
State  of  California.  Amador  County, 

LIBR  AP 

SCHOOLS. 


108 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 
PLAN  OF  VENTILATION. 


a 


a 


a 


a 


a 


a 


82  ft. 


»,  » — Ventiducts  or  ventilating  tubes.  These  should  be  at  lenst  14  inches 
square  for  a  room  containing  50  scholars,  a,  a — Apt  rtures  into  the  ventiducts 
P — Cast  iron  smoke  flue,  resting  on  soapstone  in  the  t  ttic  floor,  c,  c — Chimney 
surrounding  the  smoke  flue.  This  should  contain  as  many  square  inches  as  the 
ventiducts  leading  into  it,  after  deducting  the  space  <>ccupied  by  the  flue.  The 
inside  of  the  chimney  should  be  circular,  and  plastered  perfectly  smooth.  This 
mode  of  ventilating  is  applicable  to  any  method  of  healing,  either  by  stoves  or  by 
furnaces.  The  heat  of  the  smoke  flue  will  rarefy  the  air  in  the  chimney,  and 
produce  a  strong  draught  in  the  ventiducts.  This  is  regarded  as  the  most 
effective^  and,  at  the  same  time,  the  most  economical  mode  of  ventilation.  The 
lower  aperture  should  always  be  kept  open.  The  upper  aperture  should  be  closed, 
excepting  near  the  close  of  the  morning  and  afternoon  session,  when  it  should  be 
opened.  It  has  been  ascertained,  by  repeated  experiments,  that  carbonic  gas 
diffuses  itself  rapidly  into  every  part  of  the  room.  In  a  room  of  50  scholars,  from 
200  to  500  cubic  feet  of  air  are  vitiated  every  minute,  and  unless  some  effectual 
means  are  devised  for  expelling  the  impure  air,  the  most  serious  consequences 
must  ensue. 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


109 


PLAN  OF  DISTRICT  SCHOOL-ROOM,  RECOMMENDED  BY  DR.  A.  D  LORD, 

COLUMBUS,  OHIO. 

The  following  plan  and  description  are  copied  from  the  Ohio 
School  Journal,  Vol.  II.,  edited  by  Dr.  Lord,  Superintendent  of  the 
Common  Schools  of  Columbus,  Ohio. 


The  building  here  presented  should  be  26  by  36  feet  on  the  ground,  or,  at 
.cast,  25  by  35  feet  inside.  The  plan  is  drawn  on  a  scale  of  ten  feet  to  the  inch. 

A  C — Entries  8  feet  square,  one  for  each  sex. 

B— Library  and  apparatus  room,  8  by  9  feet,  which  may  be  used  for  a  recita- 
tion room  for  small  sized  classes. 

D — Teacher's  platform,  behind  which,  on  the  wall,  should  be  a  blackboard  12 
feet  long  bv  5  feet  wide. 

E  E  E  £-  Recitation  seats,  those  on  the  sides  placed  against  the  wall,  those 
in  front  of  the  platform  having  backs  and  being  movable. 

F  F  F — Free  space,  at  least  two  feet  wide,  next  the  wall  on  three  sides  of  the 
room. 

G— Desk,  for  two  pupils,  four  feet  long  by  18  inches  wide. 

H— Seat,    "     "        do          "      "    13      " 

I— Centre  aisle  two  feet  wide ;  the  aisles  on  either  side  of  this  should  be  from 
18  to  24  inches  wide. 

The  area  on  either  side  and  in  front  of  the  Teacher's  platform,  is  intended 
for  reading  and  spelling  classes,  and  any  other  class  exercises  in  which  the 
papils  stand ;  and  the  space  next  the  wall  may  be  used  to  arrange  the  greater 
part  of  the  school  as  one  class  in  any  general  exercises  requiring  it. 

Four  windows  are  represented  on  each  side  of  the  house,  and  two  on  the  end 
opposite  the  Teacher's  stand.  The  door  to  the  Library-room  opens  from  one 
of  the  entries,  and  the  room  is  lighted  by  a  large  window  in  the  front  end  of  the 
Louse. 


PRINCIPLES  OF  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


PLANS  OP  SCHOOL-HOUSES  RECENTLY  ERECTED. 

Under  this  head  will  be  found  plans  and  descriptions  of  a  few 
of  the  best  school-houses,  which  have  been  recently  erected  in 
Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island,  for  schools  of  different  grades,  from 
designs  or  directions  furnished  by  the  author  of  this  treatise.  They 
are  not  presented  as  faultless  specimens  of  school  architecture,  but 
as  embracing,  each,  some  points  of  excellence,  either  in  style,  con- 
struction, or  arrangement.  Although  the  author,  particularly  as 
Commissioner  of  Public  Schools  for  Rhode  Island,  was  consulted 
in  almost  every  instance  by  the  local  building  committee,  and  was 
always  gratified  in  having  opportunities  to  furnish  plans,  or  make 
suggestions, — yet  he  was  seldom  able  to  persuade  the  committee  or 
the  carpenters  to  carry  out  his  plans  and  suggestions  thoroughly. 
Something  would  be  taken  from  the  height,  or  the  length,  or  the 
breadth  ; — some  objections  would  be  made  to  the  style  of  the  exte- 
rior or  the  arrangement  of  the  interior  ; — and  particularly  the  plans 
recommended  for  securing  warmth  and  ventilation  were  almost  in- 
variably modified,  and  are  in  many  instances  entirely  neglected. 
He  desires,  therefore,  not  to  be  held  responsible  for  the  details  of  any 
one  house  as  it  now  stands. — for,  being  thus  held  responsible,  he 
should  probably  receive  credit  for  improvements  which  others  are  as 
much  entitled  to  as  himself,  and  should  in  more  instances  be  held 
accountable  for  errors  of  taste,  and  deficiencies  in  internal  arrange- 
ments, against  which  he  protested  with  those  having  charge  of  the 
construction.  He  wishes  the  reader  to  bring  all  the  plans  published 
in  this  volume,  no  matter  by  whom  recommended,  or  where  erected, 
to  the  test  of  the  principles  set  forth  on  pages  47  and  48.  If  in  any 
particular  they  fell  short  of  the  standard  therein  established,  so  far 
they  differ  from  the  designs  which  the  author  desires  to  see  followed 
in  houses  erected  under  his  own  eye.  But,  with  some  reservation, 
most  of  the  school-houses  recently  erected  in  Rhode  Island,  (and 
the  same  may  be  said  of  the  new  houses  in  Hartford,  described  in 
this  volume.)  can  be  pointed  to  as  embracing  many  improvements  in 
school  architecture.  Although  the  last  state  in  New  England  to 
enter  on  the  work  of  establishing  a  system  of  common  schools,  it  is 
believed,  she  has  now  a  system  in  operation  not  inferior  in  efficiency 
to  any  of  her  sister  states.  Be  that  as  it  may,  Rhode  Island  can 
now  boast  of  more  good  school-houses,  and  fewer  poor  ones,  in  pro- 
portion to  the  whole  number,  than  any  other  State — more  than  one 
hundred  and  fifty  thousand  dollars  having  been  voluntarily  voted  for 
this  purpose  in  less  than  three  years,  by  school  districts,  not  includ- 
ing the  city  of  Providence. 

To  Thomas  A.  Teft,  Esq.,  Architect,  of  Providence,  much  credit 
is  due  for  the  taste  which  he  has  displayed  in  the  designs  furnished 
by  him.  and  for  the  elevations  which  he  drew  for  plans  furnished  or 
suggested  by  the  Commissioner.  He  should,  not,  however,  be  held 
responsible  for  the  alterations  made  in  his  plans  by  the  committees 
and  carpenters  having  charge  of  the  erection  of  the  building. 
With  all  their  imperfections  of  execution,  Mr.  Tefi's  plans  are 
among  the  best  specimens  of  School  Architecture. 


112 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


2.    PLANS  AND  DESCRIPTIONS  OF  SCHOOL-HOUSES  RECENTLY 

ERECTED. 

The  following  school-houses  are  selected  for  representation  a»d  descrip- 
tion, not  because  they  are  superior  to  all  others,  or  are  unexceptionable  in 
every  respect,  but  because  the  plans  could  be  conveniently  obtained,  and  in 
them  all,  the  great  principles  of  school-architecture  are  observed. 

PLANS,  &c.,  OF  SCHOOL-HOUSE,  DISTRICT  No.  6,  WINDSOR,  CT. 


The  building  stands  60  ft.  from  the  highway,  near  the  center  of  an  ele- 
vated lot  which  slopes  a  little  to  the  south  and  east.  Much  the  larger  por- 
tion of  the  lot  is  in  front,  affording  a  pleasant  play  ground,  while  in  the  rear 
there  is  a  woodshed^  and  other  appropriate  buildings,  with  a  separate  yard 
for  boys  and  girls.  The  walls  are  of  brick,  and  are  hollow,  so  as  to  save 
expense  in  securing  the  antaes  or  pilasters,  and  to  prevent  dampness. 
This  building  is  33  ft.  6  inches  long,  21  ft.  8  inches  wide,  and  18  ft.  9 
inches  high  from  the  ground  to  the  eaves,  including  2  ft.  base  or  under- 
pinning. 

The  entries  A  A,  one  for  boys  and  the  other  for  girls,  are  in  the  rear  ol 
the  building,  through  the  woodshed,  which,  with  the  yard,  is  also  divided  by 
a  partition.  Each  entry  is  7  ft.  3  inches,  by  9  ft.  3  inches,  and  is  supplied 
with  a  scraper  and  mat  for  the  feet,  and  shelves  and  hooks  for  outer  gar- 
ments. 

The  school-room  is  24  ft.  5  inches  long,  by  19  ft.  4  inches  wide,  and  15 
ft.  6  inches  high  in  the  clear,  allowing  an  area  of  472  ft.  including  the  re- 
cess for  the  teacher's  platform,  and  an  allowance  of  200  cubic  feet  of  air  to 
a  school  of  36. 

The  teacher's  platform  B,  is  5  ft.  2  inches  wide,  by  6  ft.  deep,  including 
3  ft.  of  recess,  and  9  inches  high.  On  it  stands  a  table,  the  legs  of  which, 
are  set  into  the  floor,  so  as  to  be  firm,  and  at  the  same  time  movable,  in 
case  the  platform  is  needed  for  declamation,  or  other  exercises  of  the 


DISTRICT   SCHOOL-HOUSE,    WINDSOR. 


113 


scholars.  Back  of  the  teacher  is  a  range  of  shelves  b,  already  supplied  -with  a 
library  of  near  400  volumes,  and  a  globe,  outline  maps,  and  other  apparatus. 
On  the  top  of  the  case  is  a  clock.  A  blackboard  5  ft.  by  4,  is  suspended 
on  weights,  and  steadied  by  a  groove  on  each  end,  so  as  to  admit  of  being 
raised  and  lowered  by  the  teacher,  directly  in  front  of  the  book  case,  and  in 
full  view  of  the  whole  school  At  the  bottom  of  the  blackboard  is  a  trough  to 
receive  the  chalk  and  the  sponge,  or  soft  cloth. 


The  passages  D  D,  are  2  ft,  wide,  and  extend  round  the  room  ;  E  E  are 
15  inches,  and  allow  of  easy  access  to  the  seats  and  desks  on  either  hand. 
F  is  5  ft.  3  inches,  and  in  the  center  stands  an  open  stove  C,  the  pipe  of 
which  goes  into  one  of  the  flues,  a.  The  temperature  is  regulated  by  a  ther- 
mometer. 

Each  pupil  is  provided  with  a  desk  G,  and  seat  H,  the  front  of  the  former, 
constituting  the  back  or  support  of  the  latter,  which  slopes  2£  inches  in  16. 
The  seat  also   inclines  a  little  from  the 
edge.        The     seats    vary    in     height, 
from    9£    inches    to    17,    the    youngest 
children    occupying    those    nearest    the 
" 


~~f?~yj 
L!  \T 


platform.  The  desks  are  2  ft.  long  by  18  inches  wide,  with  a  shelf  beneath 
for  books,  and  a  groove  on  the  back  side  b,  (Fig.  4)  to  receive  a  slate,  with 
which  each  desk  is  furnished  by  the  district.  The  upper  surface  of  the 
desk,  except  3  inches  of  the  most  distant  portion,  slopes  1  inch  in  a  foot. 
and  the  edge  is  in  the  same  perpendicular  line  with  the  front  of  the  seat. 
The  level  portion  of  the  desk  has  a  groove  running  along  the  line  of  the 


Top  of  Desk. 


Section  of  Seat  and  Desk. 


slope  a,  (Fig.  4)  so  as  to  prevent  pencils  and  pens  from  rolling  off,  and  an 
opening  c,  (Fig  8)  to  receive  an  inkstand,  which  is  covered  by  a  metal- 
lic lid. 

The  windows,  I,  three  on  the  north  and  three  on  the  south  side,  contain 
each  40  panes  of  8  by  10  glass,  are  hung  (both  upper  and  lower  sash)  with 
weights  so  as  to  admit  of  being  raised  or  lowered  conveniently. 


114  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

PLAN  OF  SCHOOL-HOUSE  IN  MEADOW  DISTRICT,  IN  BLOOMFIELD,  CONN 


The  new  school-house  in  Meadow  District,  in  the  town  of  Bloomfield,  for  loca 
tion,  neatness,  mode  of  seating,  warming,  and  ventilation,  is  a  good  specimen  of  a 
cheap,  convenient,  and  attractive  edifice  for  a  small  country  district.  It  is  built  of 
brick,  and  the  cost,  excluding  the  land,  and  including  fences,  appendages,  and  fur- 
niture, was  about  $500.  The  style  and  arrangement  of  the  seats  and  desks  aro 
indicated  in  Figs.  3  and  4.  The  building  is  30  feet  by  20.  The  district  is  indebted 
mainly  to  Hon.  Francis  Gillette  for  his  zeal  and  determination  in  getting  up  the 
plan,  and  superintending  the  work. 

The  room  is  heated  by  MoWs  Ventilating  School  Stove,  designed  both  for  wood 
and  hard  coal.  Fresh  air  is  introduced  from  outside  of  the  building  by  a  flue 
beneath  the  floor,  and  is  warmed  by  passing  along  the  heated  surfaces  of  the 
stove  as  indicated  in  the  following  section. 


FIG.  2. 


A. 


for     coal    OT 


A    chamber, 
wood. 

B.  A  revolving  grate  with  a  cam 
motion,  by  which   the  ashes 
are  easily  detached  and  made 
to  drop  into  the  ash-pit  be- 
low. 

C.  Ash-pit,  by  which  also   the 
draught  can  be  regulated,  and 
the  stove  made  an  air-tight. 
Duct,  or  flue  under  the  floor, 
by  which  fresh  air  from  with- 
out is   admitted   under   and 
around  the  stove,  and  circu- 
lates in   the    direction    indi- 
cated by  the  arrows. 


DISTRICT  SCHOOL-HOUSE  IN  BLOOMFIELD.  115 

The  smoke-pipe  is  carried  in  the  usual  way,  high  enough  to  prevent  any 
injurious  radiation  of  heat  upon  the  heads  of  the  pupils  below,  to  the  centre  of 
the  opposite  end  of  the  room,  where,  after  passing  through  the  ceiling,  it  enters 
the  ventilating  flue,  which,  commencing  at  the  floor,  is  carried  up  through  the 
attic  and  out  above  the  roof,  as  shown  in  Figures  3  and  4.  The  heat  of  the 
smoke-pipe  produces  a  lively  upward  current  of  the  air  in  the  upper  portion 
of  the  ventilating  flue,  sufficient  to  draw  off  the  lower  stratum  of  air  near  the 
floor  and  at  the  same  time  draw  down,  and  diffuse  equally  through  the  room, 
the  fresh  air  which  is  introduced  and  warmed  by  the  stove  at  the  opposite  end. 


A — Front  entrance. 

B— Girls'  Entrance  and  lobby. 

C— Boys'        do.          do. 

D— Teachers'  platform. 

E — Seat  and  desk,  for  the  pupils. 

S— Mott's  ventilating  school  stove. 

V— Fliie  for  ventilation. 


F— Seats  for  classes  at  recitation. 

d— Teacher's  desk. 

e — Library  of  reference  in  front  of 
teacher's  desk. 

c — Closets  for  school  library  and  ap- 
paratus. 

f— Fence  dividing  back  yard. 


116 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


PLAN  OF  DISTRICT  SCHOOL-HOUSE  IN  HARRINGTON,  R.  I. 


The  above  cut  represents  in  perspective  the  new  school-house  in  District  No. 
2,  in  the  town  of  Barrington,  Rhode  Island — the  most  attractive,  convenient, 
and  complete  structure  of  the  kind  in  any  agricultural  district  in  the  State — and. 
it  is  believed,  in  NCAV  England. 

The  house  stands  back  from  the  highway  in  a  lot,  of  an  acre  in  extent,  and 
commands  an  extensive  view  up  and  down  Narraganset  Bay,  and  of  the  rich 
cultivated  fields  for  miles  in  every  other  direction. 

The  building  is  40  feet  long  by  25  wide,  and  12  feet  high  in  the  clear,  and 
is  built  after  working  plans  drawn  by  Mr.  Teft,  of  Providence. 

The  school-room  is  calculated  to  accommodate  G4  pupils,  with  seats  and 
desks  each  for  two  pupils,  similar  to  the  folowing  cut,  and  arranged  as  in 
Figure  3. 

The  end-piece,  or  supports,  both  of  the  desk  and  seat,  are  of  cast-iron,  and 
the  wood-work  is  attached  by  screws.  They  are  made  of  eight  sizes,  giving  a 
seat  from  ten  inches  to  seventeen,  and  a  desk  at  the  edge  next  to  the  scholar 
from  seventeen  to  twenty-six  inches  from  the  floor. 


Each  pupil,  when  properly  seated,  can  rest  his  feet  on  the  floor  without  the 
muscle  of  the  thigh  pressing  hard  upon  the  front  edge  of  the  seal,  and  with  a 
•mpport  for  the  muscles  of  the  back. 


DISTRICT  SCHOOL-HOUSE  IN  HARRINGTON. 


117 


The  yards  and  entrance  for  the  boys  and  girls  are  entirely  separate,  and  each 
is  appropriately  fitted  up  with  scraper,  mats,  broom,  water-pails,  sink,  hooks 
and  shelves. 


A — Front  entrance. 

B— Girls'  entrance  and  lobby,  fitted  up  with  mats,  scrapers,  hooks,  shelves. 

C — Boys'  entrance. 

D — Teacher's  platform. 

S — Boston  Ventilating  Stove. 

V — Flue  for  ventilation  surmounted,  by  Emerson's  Ejector. 

L — Cases  for  library. 

E — Closets  for  apparatus,  &c. 

The  school  is  well  supplied  with  blackboards,  maps,  globes,  and  diagrams, 
and  such  other  instrumentalities  as  are  necessary  and  useful  in  the  studies 
usually  taught  in  a  district  school. 

There  is  abundance  of  unoccupied  space  around  the  sides  of  the  room  and 
between  the  ranges  of  desks  lo  allow  of  the  free  movements  of  the  teacher  and 
of  the  pupils,  in  passing  to  and  from  their  seats. 

There  is  also  a  district  library  of  about  GOO  volumes,  containing  a  large 
number  of  books  of  reference,  such  as  Dictionaries,  Encyclopedia,  and  a  va- 
riety of  the  best  text  books  in  the  several  studies  of  the  school,  to  enable  the 
teacher  to  extend  his  knowledge,  and  illustrate  his  recitations  by  additional 
information. 

There  are  about  one  hundred  volumes  selected  with  reference  to  the  youngest 
class  of  children,  and  about  400  volumes  in  the  different  departments  of  useful 
knowledge,  calculated  for  circulation  among  the  older  pupils,  in  the  families 
of  the  district  generally. 

The  maps,  apparatus  and  library  were  purchased  by  the  Commissioner  ol 
Public  Schools  at  an  expense  of  $250,  which  was  contributed  by  five  or  six 
individuals.  The  building,  furniture  and  land,  cost  about  $1200. 

The  school-room  is  warmed  and  ventilated  under  the  direction  of  Mr.Gard- 
ner  Chilson,  Boston,  by  one  of  the  Boston  Ventilating  Stoves,  and  by  a  flue 
constructed  similar  to  those  recently  introduced  into  the  Boston  Public  School 
houses  by  Dr.  Henry  G.  Clark,  and  surmounted  by  Emerson's  Ejector. 

A  cut  and  description  of  this  stove,  and  of  Moil's  Ventilating  Stove  for  burn- 
ing wood  as  well  as  coal,  is  given  on  the  next  page. 

The  flue  for  ventilation  is  carried  up  in  the  partition  wall,  and  is  constructed 
of  well  seasoned  boards,  planed  smooth  on  the  inside. 


118 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


More  than  sixty  District  school-houses  have  been  erected  in  Rhode  Island 
on  the  same  general  plan  as  that  presented  in  the  cuts  of  the  Harrington  and 
Glocester  school-house,  with  some  slight  variations  required  by  the  nature  oi 
the  site,  or  the  peculiar  views  of  the  majority  of  the  district,  or  of  the  building 
committee,  in  each  case.  The  following  plans  present  some  of  these  modifi- 
cations. The  first  is  34  ft.  by  25,  and  the  second,  36  ft.  by  27. 

PLAN  OF  SCHOOL-HOUSE  IN  DISTRICT  No.  10,  CRANSTOX. 


A — Front  entrance. 
B — Girls'  entrance. 
C— Boys'  do. 


D—  Teacher's  platform. 
E—  Library. 

S  —  Worcester    Ventilat- 
ing Stove. 


V — Flue  for  ventilation. 
F — Seat    and  desk  with 

iron  ends, 
g — Cold  air  duct. 


PLAN  OF  SCHOOL-HOUSE  AT  CLAYVILLE,  SCITUATE. 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE.  119 

PLAN  OF  SCHOOL-HOUSE  IN  CEXTREVILLE,    WARWICK,  R.  I 

The  following  plan  presents  a  mode  of  seating  a  District  School-House  sim 
ilar  to  that  adopted  in  several  public  school -houses  in  the  city  of  JXew  York. 


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The  building  is  50  feet  long  (beside'the  porch  5^  feet  in  front)  by  30  feet  wide 
A — Porch.  R — Recitation-room  for  assistant. 

B— Girls'  entrance  and  lobby.  S— Stove. 

C— Boys'  do.  T— Smoke  flue. 

D — Teacher's  platform.  V — Flue  for  ventilator. 

E — Mott's  school  desk  and  chair. 

The  above  mode  of  seating  has  been  adopted  in  other  districts,  and  in  one  in- 
stance, with  the  desks  attached  at  one  end  to  the  wall,  as  in  the  following  plan 
recommended  by  Hon.  Ira  Mayhew.  There  are  serious  objections  to  this  ar- 
rangement of  the  seats  and  desk. 


D,  entrance  and  inner  doors.  W,  windows.  E,  entries,  lighted  over  doors, 
one  for  boys  and  the  other  for  girls.  A,  teacher's  platform.  B,  blackboard, 
reaching  entirely  across  the  end  of  the  house.  T,  teacher's  desk.  H,  desks  11 
feet  long,  except  the  two  next  the  entrance  doors.  C,  Mott's  patent  cast-iron 
chairs.  S  stove.  O,  an  air  tube  under  the  floor,  through  which  pure  air  from 
without  is  introduced  beneath  the  stove.  L,  shelves  for  library,  apparatus,  etc. 


120 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


PLANS  OF  SCHOOL-HOUSES  RECENTLY  ERECTED  IN  NEW 
HAMPSHIRE. 

The  following  plans,  and  the  descriptions  of  the  same,  are  taken,  by 
permission,  from  the  "Third  Annual  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Com- 
mon Schools  (HoN.  R.  S.  RUST,)  to  the  Legislature  of  New  Hampshire^ 
January,  1849." 

PLAN  OF  DISTRICT  SCHOOL-HOUSE  IN  DUBLIN,  N.  H. 

The  building  is  42  by  32  feet  on  the  ground,  and  11  feet  high  in  the  clear. 
The  school-room  of  29  by  35  feet  inside,  and  is  furnished  with  64  seats  (1,1,1,) 
and  as  many  desks  (H,H,H.)  The  desks  are  made  of  birch  board,  and  painted 
green,  each  2  feet  long  and  from  10  to  18  inches  wide,  and  are  all  numbered. 
The  supports  at  the  end  of  the  desks  are  framed  down  through  the  floor  into 
the  sleepers,  or  joints  under  the  floor.  The  seats  are  in  the  form  of  wooden 
chair  bottoms,  and  are  16  inches  down  to  10  in  height,  and  are  placed  at  the 
left  hand  of  the  writing  desk,  so  as  to  make  it  convenient  for  me  scholar  in 
writing,  and  give  him  space  to  stand  within  the  line  of  his  desk.  The  outside 
aisles  are  18  inches,  the  center  24  inches,  and  the  outer  16  inches  wide.  There 
are  movable  seats  (N,N,)  in  front,  and  on  either  side  of  the  teacher,  for  recita- 
tion. The  entrances  (G,G,),  one  for  boys  and  one  for  girls,  are  fitted  up  for 
hats,  bonnets,  &c.,  and  can  be  used  for  recitation  rooms.  Back  of  the  teacher's 
platform  (A,)  is  a  small  room  for  a  library,  apparatus,  and  the  use  of  the 
teacher.  The  room  is  heated  by  one  of  the  Worcester  Common  School 
Stoves,  which  cost  about  $18.  By  means  of  a  flue  under  the  floor,  the  air  is 
introduced  beneath  the  stove,  and  circulates  through  heated  tubes  before  it  is 
admitted  into  the  room,  on  the  principle  of  a  furnace. 

The  ventilation  of  the  room  is  partially  secured  by  openings  into  the  attic, 
and  hence  into  the  open  air. 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  IN  NEW  HAMPSHIRE.  121 

PLAN  OF  DISTRICT  SCHOOL-HOUSE  IN  GREENLAND,  N.  H. 

The  building  is  50  feet  long  by  30  feet  wide,  and  12  feet  high  in  the  clear. 
It  is  built  of  brick.  A  large  entry  (E),  is  partitioned  off  from  the  school-room, 
and  fitted  up  not  only  to  receive  the  hats,  bonnets,  &c.,  of  the  pupils,  but  to 
accommodate  all  the  pupils  in  rainy  weather  during  recess,  as  well  as  those 
who  reside  at  a  distance,  when  they  arrive  at  the  school-house  before  the 
school-room  is  opened,  and  those  who  may  be  obliged  to  stay  during  recess. 
The  entry  and  the  school-room  is  heated  by  a  large  stove  (S)  placed  in  the 
partition.  The  teacher's  platform  (P)  is  placed  at  the  end  of  the  school-room, 
and  is  raised  one  step  above  the  floor.  Back  of  the  teacher,  along  the  wall, 
are  cases  (B)  for  apparatus,  and  a  well-selected  library  of  200  vols.  There 
are  48  separate  desks  of  different  heights,  framed  on  posts  permanently  fixed 
to  the  timbers  of  the  floor,  and  fitted  with  seats  of  corresponding  heights  set  in 
cast  iron  frames  secured  to  the  floor ;  both  seats  and  desks  are  stained  and 
varnished. 


122 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


PRIMARY  SCHOOL  ix  WESTERLY,  R. 


VILLAGE  SCHOOL-HOUSE  IN  ALLENDALE,  N.  PROVIDENCE,  R.  I. 


UNION  SCHOOLS.  123 

PLANS  OF  SCHOOL-HOUSES  FOR  UNION  SCHOOLS. 

BEFORE  describing  a  few  of  the  best  school-houses  which  have 
been  recently  erected  in  the  large  villages  of  Rhode  Island,  for  two 
or  more  schools  of  different  grades  in  the  same  building,  a  brief  con- 
sideration of  the  importance  of  classification,  or  gradation,  as  ap- 
plied to  the  schools  of  a  district,  or  town,  cannot  be  deemed 
irrelevant. 

To  enable  children  to  derive  the  highest  degree  of  benefit  from 
their  attendance  at  school,  they  should  go  through  a  regular  course 
of  training  in  a  succession  of  classes,  and  schools  arranged  according 
to  similarity  of  age,  standing,  and  attainments,  under  teachers  pos- 
sessing the  qualifications  best  adapted  to  each  grade  of  school.  The 
practice  has  been  almost  universal  in  New  England,  and  in  other 
states  where  the  organization  of  the  schools  is  based  upon  the 
division  of  the  territory  into  school  districts,  to  provide  but  one 
school  for  as  many  children  of  both  sexes,  and  of  all  ages  from  four 
to  sixteen  years,  as  can  be  gathered  in  from  certain  territorial  limits, 
into  one  apartment,  under  one  teacher ;  a  female  teacher  in  summer, 
and  a  male  teacher  in  winter.  The  disadvantages  of  this  practice, 
both  to  pupils  and  teachers,  are  great  and  manifold. 

There  is  a  large  amount  of  physical  suffering  arid  discomfort,  as 
well  as  great  hinderances  in  the  proper  arrangement  of  scholars  and 
classes,  caused  by  crowding  the  older  and  younger  pupils  into  the 
same  school-room,  without  seats  and  furniture  appropriate  to  either ; 
and  the  greatest  amount  of  suffering  and  discomfort  falls  upon  the 
young,  who  are  least  able  to  bear  it,  and  who,  in  consequence,  ac- 
quire a  distaste  to  study  and  the  school-room. 

The  work  of  education  going  on  in  such  schools,  cannot  be 
appropriate  and  progressive.  There  cannot  be  a  regular  course  of 
discipline  and  instruction,  adapted  to  the  age  and  proficiency  of 
pupils — a  series  of  processes,  each  adapted  to  certain  periods  in  the 
development  of  the  mind  and  character,  the  first  intended  to  be  fol- 
lowed by  a  second,  and  the  second  by  a  third, — the  latter  always 
depending  on  the  earlier,  arid  all  intended  to  be  conducted  on  the 
same  general  principles,  and  by  methods  varying  with  the  work  to 
be  done,  and  the  progress  already  made. 

With  the  older  and  younger  pupils  in  the  same  room,  there  cannot 
be  a  system  of  discipline  which  shall  be  equally  well  adapted  to  both 
classes.  If  it  secures  the  cheerful  obedience  and  subordination  of 
the  older,  it  will  press  with  unwise  severity  upon  the  younger 
pupils.  If  it  be  adapted  to  the  physical  wants,  and  peculiar  tem- 
peraments of  the  young,  it  will  endanger  the  good  order  and  habits 
of  study  of  the  more  advanced  pupils,  by  the  frequent  change  of 
posture  and  position,  and  other  indulgences  which  it  permits  and 
requires  of  the  former. 

\Vith  studies  ranging  from  the  alphabet  and  the  simplest  rudiments 
of  knowledge,  to  the  higher  branches  of  an  English  education,  a 
variety  of  methods  of  instruction  and  illustration  are  called  for, 
which  are  seldom  found  together,  or  in  an  equal  degree,  in  the  same 


124  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

teacher,  and  which  can  never  be  pursued  with  equal  success  in  the 
same  school-room.  The  elementary  principles  of  knowledge,  to  be 
made  intelligible  and  interesting  to  the  young,  must  be  presented  by 
a  large  use  of  the  oral  and  simultaneous  methods.  The  higher 
branches,  especially  all  mathematical  subjects,  require  patient  ap- 
plication and  habits  of  abstraction,  on  the  part  of  the  older  pupils, 
which  can  with  difficulty,  if  at  all,  be  attained  by  many  pupils,  amid 
a  multiplicity  of  distracting  exercises,  movements  arid  sounds.  The 
recitations  of  this  class  of  pupils,  to  be  profitable  and  satisfactory, 
must  be  conducted  in  a  manner  which  requires  time,  discussion 
and  explanation,  and  the  undivided  attention  both  of  pupils  and 
teachers. 

From  the  number  of  class  and  individual  recitations,  to  be  attended 
to  during  each  half  day,  these  exercises  are  brief,  hurried,  and  of 
little  practical  value.  They  consist,  for  the  most  part,  of  senseless 
repetitions  of  the  words  of  a  book.  Instead  of  being  the  time  and 
place  where  the  real  business  of  teaching  is  done,  where  the 
ploughshare  of  interrogation  is  driven  down  into  the  acquirements  of 
each  pupil,  and  his  ability  to  comprehend  clearly,  remember  accu- 
rately, discriminate  wisely,  and  reason  closely,  is  cultivated  and 
tested, — where  the  difficult  principles  of  each  lesson  are  developed 
and  illustrated,  and  additional  information  imparted,  and  the  mind  of 
the  teacher  brought  in  direct  contact  with  the  mind  of  each  pupil,  to 
arouse,  interest,  and  direct  its  opening  powers — instead  of  all  this 
and  more,  the  brief  period  passed  in  recitation,  consists,  on  the  part 
of  the  teacher,  of  hearing  each  individual  and  class  in  regular  order, 
and  quick  succession,  repeat  words  from  a  book  ;  and  on  the  part  of 
the  pupils,  of  saying  their  lessons^  as  the  operation  is  significantly 
described  by  most  teachers,  when  they  summon  the  class  to  the 
stand.  In  the  mean  time  the  order  of  the  school  must  be  maintained, 
and  the  general  business  must  be  going  forward.  Little  children 
without  any  authorized  employment  for  their  eyes  and  hands,  and 
ever  active  curiosity,  must  be  made  to  sit  still,  while  every  muscle  is 
aching  from  suppressed  activity  ;  pens  must  be  mended,  copies  set, 
arithmetical  difficulties  solved,  excuses  for  tardiness  or  absence  re- 
ceived, questions  answered,  whisperings  allowed  or  suppressed,  and 
more  or  less  of  extempore  discipline  administered.  Were  it  not  a 
most  ruinous  waste  of  precious  time, — did  it  not  involve  the  deaden- 
ing, crushing,  distorting,  dwarfing  of  immortal  faculties  and  noble 
sensibilities, — were  it  not  an  utter  perversion  of  the  noble  objects 
for  which  schools  are  instituted,  it  would  be  difficult  to  conceive  of 
a  more  diverting  farce  than  an  ordinary  session  of  a  large  public 
school,  whose  chaotic  and  discordant  elements  have  not  been  reduced 
to  system  by  a  proper  classification.  The  teacher,  at  least  the  con- 
scientious teacher,  thinks  it  any  thing  but  a  farce  to  him.  Com- 
pelled to  hurry  from  one  study  to  another,  the  most  diverse, — from 
one  class  to  another,  requiring  a  knowledge  of  methods  altogether 
distinct, — from  one  recitation  to  another,  equally  brief  and  unsatis- 
factory, one  requiring  a  liveliness  of  manner,  which  he 'does  not  feel 
and  cannot  assume,  and  the  other  closeness  of  attention  and  abstrac- 


GRADATION  OF  SCHOOLS.  125 

tion  of  thought,  which  he  cannot  give  amid  the  multiplicity  and 
variety  of  cares, — from  one  case  of  discipline  to  another,  pressing  on 
him  at  the  same  time, — he  goes  through  the  same  circuit  day  after 
day.  with  a  dizzy  brain  and  aching  heart,  and  brings  his  school  to  a 
close  with  a  feeling,  that  with  all  his  diligence  and  fidelity,  he  has 
accomplished  but  little  good. 

But  great  as  are  the  evils  of  a  want  of  proper  classification  of 
schools,  arising  from  the  causes  already  specified,  these  evils  are 
ao-gravated  by  the  almost  universal  practice  of  employing  one 
teacher  in  summer,  and  another  in  winter,  and  different  teachers 
each  successive  summer  and  winter.  Whatever  progress  one 
teacher  may  make  in  bringing  order  out  of  the  chaotic  elements  of  a 
large  public  school,  is  arrested  by  the  termination  of  his  school 
term.  His  experience  is  not  available  to  his  successor,  who  does 
not  come  into  the  school  until  after  an  interval  of  weeks  or  months, 
and  in  the  mean  time  the  former  teacher  has  left  the  town  or  state. 
The  new  teacher  is  a  stranger  to  the  children  and  their  parents,  is 
unacquainted  with  the  system  pursued  by  his  predecessor,  and  has 
himself  but  little  or  no  experience  in  the  business  ;  in  consequence, 
chaos  comes  back  again,  and  the  confusion  is  still  worse  confounded 
by  the  introduction  of  new  books,  for  every  teacher  prefers  to  teach 
from  the  books  in  which  he  studied,  or  which  he  has  been  accus- 
tomed to  teach,  and  many  teachers  cannot  teach  profitably  from  any 
other.  Weeks  are  thus  passed,  in  which  the  school  is  going  through 
the  process  of  organization,  and  the  pupils  are  becoming  accustomed 
to  the  methods  and  requirements  of  a  new  teacher — some  of  them 
are  put  back,  or  made  to  retrace  their  studies  in  new  books,  while 
others  are -pushed  forward  into  studies  for  which  they  are  not  pre- 
pared ;  and  at  the  end  of  three  or  four  months,  the  school  relapses 
into  chaos.  There  is  constant  change,  but  no  progress. 

This  want  of  system,  and  this  succession  of  new  teachers,  goes 
on  from  term  to  term,  and  year  to  year — a  process  which  would  in- 
volve any  other  interest  in  speedy  and  utter  ruin,  where  there  was 
not  provision  made  for  fresh  material  to  be  experimented  upon,  and 
counteracting  influences  at  work  to  restore,  or  at  least  obviate  the 
injury  done.  What  other  business  of  society  could  escape  utter 
wreck,  if  conducted  with  such  want  of  system, — with  such  constant 
disregard  of  the  fundamental  principle  of  the  division  of  labor,  and 
with  a  succession  of  new  agents  every  three  months,  none  of  them 
trained  to  the  details  of  the  business,  each  new  agent  acting  without 
any  knowledge  of  the  plan  of  his  predecessor,  or  any  well  settled 
plan  of  his  own  !  The  public  school  is  not  an  anomaly,  an  excep- 
tion, among  the  great  interests  of  society.  Its  success  or  failure  de 
pends  on  the  existence  or  absence  of  certain  conditions  ;  and  ii 
complete  failure  does  not  follow  the  utter  neglect  of  these  conditions, 
it  is  because  every  term  brings  into  the  schools  a  fresh  supply  of 
children  to  be  experimented  upon,  and  sweeps  away  others  beyond 
the  reach  of  bad  school  instruction  and  discipline  ;  and  because  the 
minds  of  some  of  these  children  are,  for  a  portion  of  each  day,  left 


126  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 

to  the  action  of  their  own  inherent  forces,  and  the  more  kindly  influ- 
ences of  nature,  the  family  and  society. 

Among  these  conditions  of  success  in  the  operation  of  a  system  of 
public  schools,  is  such  a  classification  of  the  scholars  as  shall  bring 
a  larger  number  of  similar  age  and  attainments,  at  all  times,  and  in 
every  stage  of  their  advancement,  under  teachers  of  the  right  qualifi- 
cations, and  shall  enable  these  teachers  to  act  upon  numbers  at  once, 
for  years  in  succession,  and  carry  them  all  forward  effectually  together, 
in  a  regular  course  of  instruction. 

The  great  principle  to  be  regarded  in  the  classification,  either  of 
the  schools  of  a  town  or  district,  or  of  scholars  in  the  same  school, 
is  equality  of  attainments,  which  will  generally  include  those  of  the 
same  age.  Those  who  have  gone  over  substantially  the  same  ground, 
or  reached,  or  nearly  reached  the  same  point  of  attainment  in  several 
studies,  should  be  put  together,  and  constitute,  whenever  their  num- 
bers will  authorize  it,  one  school.  These  again  should  be  arranged 
in  different  classes,  for  it  is  seldom  practicable,  even  if  it  were  ever 
desirable,  to  have  but  one  class  in  every  study  in  the  same  grade  of 
school.  Even  in  very  large  districts,  where  the  scholars  are  pro- 
moted from  a  school  of  a  lower  grade  to  one  of  a  higher,  after  being 
found  qualified  in  certain  studies,  it  is  seldom  that  any  considerable 
number  will  have  reached  a  common  standard  of  scholarship  in  all 
their  studies.  The  same  pupil  will  have  made  very  different  prog- 
ress in  different  branches.  He  will  stand  higher  in  one  and  lower 
in  another.  By  arranging  scholars  of  the  same  general  division  in 
different  classes,  no  pupil  need  be  detained  by  companions  svho  have 
made,  or  can  make  less  progress,  or  be  hurried  over  lessons  and  sub- 
jects in  a  superficial  manner,  to  accommodate  the  more  rapid  ad- 
vancement of  others.  Although  equality  of  attainment  should  be 
regarded  as  the  general  principle,  some  regard  should  be  paid  to 
age,  and  other  circumstances.  A  large  boy  of  sixteen,  from  the 
deficiency  of  his  early  education,  which  may  be  his  misfortune  and 
not  his  fault,  ought  not  to  be  put  into  a  school  or  class  of  little  chil- 
dren, although  their  attainments  may  be  in  advance  of  his.  This 
step  would  mortify  and  discourage  him.  In  such  extreme  cases,  that 
arrangement  will  be  best  which  will  give  the  individual  the  greatest 
chance  of  improvement,  with  the  least  discomfort  to  himself,  and 
hindrance  to  others.  Great  disparity  of  age  in  the  same  class,  or  the 
same  school,  is  unfavorable  to  uniform  and  efficient  discipline,  and 
the  adaptation  of  methods  of  teaching,  and  of  motives  to  application 
and  obedience.  Some  regard,  too,  should  be  had  to  the  preferences 
of  individuals,  especially  among  the  older  pupils,  and  their  probable 
destination  in  life.  The  mind  comes  into  the  requisitions  of  study 
more  readily,  and  works  with  higher  results,  when  led  onward  by 
the  heart ;  and  the  utility  of  any  branch  of  study,  its  relations  to 
future  success  in  life,  once  clearly  apprehended,  becomes  a  power- 
ful motive  to  effort. 

Each  class  in  a  school  should  be  as  large  as  is  consistent  with 
thoroughness  and  minuteness  of  individual  examination,  and  practi- 


GRADATION  OF  SCHOOLS.  127 

cable,  without  bringing  together  individuals  of  diverse  capacity, 
knowledge,  and  habits  of  study.  A  good  teacher  can  teach  a  class 
of  forty  with  as  much  ease  as  a  class  of  ten,  and  with  far  more  profit 
to  each  individual,  than  if  the  same  amount  of  time  was  divided  up 
among  four  classes,  each  containing  one-fourth  of  the  whole  number. 
When  the  class  is  large,  there  is  a  spirit,  a  glow,  a  struggle  which 
can  never  be  infused  or  called  forth  in  a  small  class.  Whatever 
time  is  spent  upon  a  few,  which  could  have  been  as  profitably  spent 
on  a  larger  number,  is  a  loss  of  power  and  time  to  the  extent  of  the 
number  who  were  not  thus  benefited.  The  recitations  of  a  large 
class  must  be  more  varied,  both  as  to  order  and  methods,  so  as  to 
reach  those  whose  attention  would  wander  if  not  under  the  pressure 
of  constant  excitement,  or  might  become  slothful  from  inaction  or  a 
sense  of  security.  Some  studies  will  admit  of  a  larger  number  in  a 
class  than  others. 

The  number  of  classes  for  recitation  in  the  same  apartment,  by 
one  teacher,  should  be  small.  This  will  facilitate  the  proper  division 
of  labor  in  instruction,  and  allow  more  time  for  each  class.  The 
teacher  intrusted  with  the  care  of  but  few  studies,  and  few  recita- 
tions, can  have  no  excuse  but  indolence,  or  the  want  of  capacity,  if 
he  does  not  master  these  branches  thoroughly,  and  soon  acquire  the 
most  skillful  and  varied  methods  of  teaching  them.  His  attention 
will  not  be  distracted  by  a  multiplicity  and  variety  of  cares,  pressing 
upon  him  at  the  same  time.  This  principle  does  not  require  that 
every  school  should  be  small,  but  that  each  teacher  should  have  a 
small  number  of  studies  and  classes  to  superintend. 

In  a  large  school,  properly  classified,  a  division  of  labor  can  be 
introduced  in  the  department  of  government,  as  well  as  in  that  of 
instruction.  By  assigning  the  different  studies  to  a  sufficient  num- 
ber of  assistants,  in  separate  class-rooms,  each  well  qualified  to  teach 
the  branches  assigned,  the  principal  teacher  may  be  selected  with 
special  reference  to  his  ability  in  arranging  the  studies,  and  order  of 
exercises  of  the  school,  in  administering  its  discipline,  in  adapting 
moral  instruction  to  individual  scholars,  and  superintending  the 
operations  of  each  class-room,  so  as  to  secure  the  harmonious  action 
and  progress  of  every  department.  The  talents  and  tact  required  for 
these  and  similar  duties,  are  more  rarely  found  than  the  skill  and 
attainments  required  to  teach  successfully  a  particular  study.  When 
found,  the  influence  of  such  a  principal,  possessing  in  a  high  degree, 
the  executive  talent  spoken  of,  will  be  felt  through  every  class,  and 
by  every  subordinate  teacher,  giving  tone  and  efficiency  to  the  whole 
school. 

To  facilitate  the  introduction  of  these,  and  similar  principles  ot 
classification,  into  the  organization  and  arrangements  of  the  schools 
of  a  town  or  district,  as  fast  and  as  far  as  the  circumstances  of  the 
population  will  admit,  the  following  provisions  should  be  engrafted 
into  the  school  system  of  every  state. 

1.  Every  town  should  be  clothed  with  all  the  powers  requisite  to 
establish  and  maintain  a  sufficient  number  of  schools  of  different 
grades,  at  convenient  locations,  to  accommodate  all  the  children  re- 


128  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

siding  within  their  respective  limits — irrespective  of  any  territorial 
division  of  the  town  into  school  districts. 

2.  Should  provision  be  made  for  the  creation  of  territorial  school 
districts,  a  gradation  of  districts  should  he   recognized,   and   every 
district  having  over  sixty  children  of  an  age  to  attend  school,  should 
be  obliged  to  maintain  a  primary  school  under  a  female  teacher  for 
the  young  pupils,  and  provide  a  secondary  school  for  the  older  and 
more  advanced  pupils. 

3.  No  village,  or  populous  district,  in  which  two  or  more  schools 
of  different  grades  for  the  younger  and  older  children  respectively, 
can  be  conveniently  established,  should  be  sub-divided  into  two  or 
more  independent  districts. 

4.  Any  two  or  more  adjoining  districts,  in  the  same,  or  adjoining 
towns,  should  be  authorized  to  establish  and  maintain  a  secondary 
school  for  the  older  and  more  advanced  pupils  of  such  districts,  for 
the  whole,  or  any  portion  of  the  year. 

5.  Any  district,  not  having  children  enough  to  require  the  perma- 
nent establishment  of  two  grades  of  schools,  should  be  authorized  to 
determine  the  periods  of  the  year  in  which  the  public  school  shall 
be  kept,  and  to  determine  the  age  and  studies  of  the  children  who 
£hall  attend  at  any  particular  period  of  the  year,  and  also  to  send  the 
older  pupils  to  the  secondary  school  of  an  adjoining  district. 

The  extent  to  which  the  gradation  of  schools  can  be  carried,  in 
any  town  or  district,  and  the  limit  to  which  the  number  of  classes 
in  any  school  can  be  reduced,  will  depend  on  the  compactness, 
number,  and  other  circumstances  of  the  population,  in  that  town  or 
district,  and  the  number  and  age  of  the  pupils,  and  the  studies  and 
methods  of  instruction  in  that  school.  A  regular  gradation  of  schools 
might  embrace  Primary,  Secondary  and  High  Schools,  with  Inter- 
mediate Schools,  or  departments,  between  each  grade,  and  Supple- 
mentary Schools,  to  meet  the  wants  of  a  class  of  pupils  not  provided 
for  in  either  of  the  above  grades. 

1.  Primary  Schools,  as  a  general  rule,  should  be  designed  for 
children  between  the  ages  of  three  and  eight  years,  with  a  further 
classification  of  the  very  youngest  children,  when  their  number  will 
admit  of  it.  These  schools  can  be  accommodated,  in  compact  villa- 
ges, in  the  same  building  with  the  Secondary  or  High  School ;  but 
in  most  large  districts,  it  will  be  necessary  and  desirable  to  locate 
them  in  different  neighborhoods,  to  meet  the  peculiarities  of  the  pop- 
ulation, and  facilitate  the  regular  attendance  of  very  young  children, 
and  relieve  the  anxiety  of  parents  for  their  safety  on  their  way  to  and 
from  school.  The  school-room  should  be  light,  cheerful,  and  large 
enough  for  the  evolutions  of  large  classes — furnished  with  appropri- 
ate seats,  furniture,  apparatus  and  means  of  visible  illustration,  and 
having  a  retired,  dry  and  airy  play-ground,  with  a  shelter  to  resort  to 
in  inclement  weather,  and  with  flower  borders,  shrubbery  and  shade 
trees,  which  they  should  be  taught  to  love  and  respect.  The  play- 
ground is  as  essential  as  the  school-room,  for  a  Primary  School,  and 
is  indeed  the  uncovered  school-room  of  physical  and  moral  educa- 


GRADATION  OF  SCHOOLS.  129 

tion,  and  the  place  where  the  manners  and  personal  habits  of  children 
can  be  better  trained  than  elsewhere.  With  them,  the  hours  of  play 
and  study,  of  confinement  and  recreation,  must  alternate  more  fre- 
quently than  with  older  pupils.  To  teach  these  schools  properly, — 
to  regulate  the  hours  of  play  and  study  so  as  to  give  variety,  vivacity, 
and  interest  to  all  of  the  exercises,  without  over-exciting  the  nervous 
^ystem,  or  over-tasking  any  faculty  of  mind  or  body, — to  train  boys 
and  girls  to  mild  dispositions,  graceful  and  respectful  manners,  and 
unquestioning  obedience, — to  cultivate  the  senses  to  habits  of  quick 
and  accurate  observation  and  discrimination, — to  prevent  the  forma- 
tion of  artificial  and  sing-song  tones, — to  teach  the  use  of  the  voice, 
and  of  simple,  ready  and  correct  language,  and  to  begin  in  this  way, 
and  by  appropriate  exercises  in  drawing,  calculation,  and  lessons  OH 
the  properties  and  classification  of  objects,  the  cultivation  of  the 
intellectual  faculties, — to  do  all  these  things  and  more,  require  in 
the  teacher  a  rare  union  of  qualities,  seldom  found  in  one  in  a  hun- 
dred of  the  male  sex,  and  to  be  looked  for  with  the  greatest  chance 
of  success  among  females,  "  in  whose  own  hearts,  love,  hope  and 
patience,  have  first  kept  school." 

The  earlier  we  can  establish,  in  every  populous  district,  primary 
schools,  under  female  teachers,  whose  hearts  are  made  strong  by 
deep  religious  principle, — who  have  faith  in  the  power  of  Christian 
love  steadily  exerted  to  fashion  anew  the  bad  manners,  and  soften 
the  harsh  and  self-willed  perverseness  of  neglected  children, — with 
patience  to  begin  every  morning,  with  but  little  if  any  perceptible  ad- 
vance beyond  where  they  began  the  previous  morning, — with  prompt 
and  kind  sympathies,  and  ready  skill  in  music,  drawing,  and  oral 
methods,  the  better  it  will  be  for  the  cause  of  education,  and  for  ev- 
ery other  good  cause. 

2.  Secondary  Schools  should  receive  scholars  at  the  age  of  eight 
years,  or  about  that  age,  and  carry  them  forward  in  those  branches 
of  instruction  which  lie  at  the  foundation  of  all  useful  attainments  in 
knowledge,  and  are  indispensable  to  the  proper  exercise  and  devel- 
opment of  all  the  faculties  of  the  mind,  and  to  the  formation  of  good 
intellectual  tastes  and  habits  of  application.  If  the  primary  schools 
have  done  their  work  properly,  in  forming  habits  of  attention,  and 
teaching  practically  the  first  uses  of  language, — in  giving  clear  ideas 
of  the  elementary  principles  of  arithmetic,  geography,  and  the  sim- 
plest lessons  in  drawing,  the  scholars  of  a  well  conducted  secondary 
school,  who  will  attend  regularly  for  eight  or  ten  months  in  the  year, 
until  they  are  twelve  years  of  age,  can  acquire  as  thorough  knowl- 
edge of  reading,  arithmetic,  penmanship,  drawing,  geography,  history, 
and  the  use  of  the  language  in  composition  and  speech,  as  is  ever 
given  in  common  or  public  schools,  as  ordinarily  conducted,  to  chil- 
dren at  the  age  of  sixteen.  For  this  class  of  schools,  well  qualified! 
female  teachers,  with  good  health,  self-command,  and  firmness,  are 
as  well  fitted  as  male  teachers.  But  if  the  school  is  large,  both  a 
male  and  female  teacher  should  be  employed,  as  the  influence  of 
both  are  needed  in  the  training  of  the  moral  character  and  manners. 

9 


130  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

Schools  of  this  grade  should  be  furnished  with  class-rooms  for  reci- 
tations, and  if  large,  with  a  female  assistant  for  every  thirty  pupils. 

3.  High  Schools  should  receive  pupils  from  schools  of  the  grade 
below,  and  carry  them  forward  in  a  more  comprehensive  course  of 
instruction,  embracing  a  continuation  of  their  former  studies,  and 
especially  of  the  English  language,  and  drawing,  and  a  knowledge 
of  algebra,  geometry  and  trigonometry,  with  their  applications,  the 
elements  of  mechanics  and  natural  philosophy  and  chemistry,  natural 
history,  including  natural  theology,  mental  and  moral  science,  politi- 
cal economy,  physiology,  and  the  constitution  of  the  United  States. 
These  and  other  studies  should  form  the  course  of  instruction,  modi- 
fied according  to  the  sex,  age,  and  advancement,  and  to  some  extent, 
future  destination  of  the  pupils,  and  the  standard  fixed  by  the  intelli- 
gence and  intellectual  wrants  of  the  district — a  course  which  should 
give  to  every  young  man  a  thorough  English  education,  preparatory 
to  the  pursuits  of  agriculture,  commerce,  trade,  manufactures,  and 
the  mechanical  arts,  and  if  desired,  for  college ;  and  to  every  young 
woman,  a  well  disciplined  mind,  high  moral  aims,   and  practical 
views  of  her  own  duties,  and  those   resources  of  health,  thought, 
manners  and  conversation,  which  bless  alike  the  highest  and  lowest 
stations  in  life.     All  which  is  now  done  in  private  schools  of  the 
highest  grade,  and  where  the  wants  of  any  considerable  portion  of 
the  community  create  such  private   schools,  should  be  provided  for 
in  the  system  of  public  schools,  so  that  the  same  advantages,  with- 
out being  abridged  or  denied  to  the  children  of  the  rich  and  the 
educated,  should  be  open  at  the  same  time  to  worthy  and  talented 
children   of  the  poorest  parent.     In  some  districts  a  part  of  the 
studies  of  this  grade  of  schools  might  be  embraced  in  the  Secondary 
Schools,  which  would  thus  take  the  place  of  the  High  School  ;  in 
others,  the  High  School  could  be  open  for  only  portions  of  the  year  ; 
and  in  others,  two  departments,  or  two  schools,  one  for  either  sex, 
would  be  required.     However  constituted,  whether  as  one  depart- 
ment, or  two,  as  a  distinct  school,  or  as  part  of  a  secondary  school, 
or  an  ordinary  district  school,  and  for  the  whole  year,  or  part  of  the 
year,  something  of  the  kind  is  required  to  meet  the  wants  of  the 
whole  community,  and  relieve  the  public  schools  from  impotency. 
Unless  it  can  be  engrafted  upon  the  public  school  system,  or  rather 
unless  it  can  grow  up  and  out  of  the  system,  as  a  provision  made 
for  the  educational  wants  of  the  whole  community,  then  the  system 
will  never  gather  about  it  the  warmth  and  sustaining  confidence  and 
patronage  of  all  classes,  and  especially  of  those  who  know  best  the 
value  of  a  good  education,  and  are  willing  to  spend  time  and  money 
to  secure  it  for  their  own  children. 

4.  Intermediate  Schools  or  departments  will  be  needed  in  large 
districts,  to  receive  a  class  of  pupils  who  are  too  old  to  be  continued, 
without  wounding  their  self-esteem,  in  the  school  below,  or  interfering 
with  its  methods  of  discipline  and  instruction,  and  are  not  prepared 
in  attainments,  and  habits  of  study,  or  from  irregular  attendance,  to 
be  arranged  in  the  regular  classes  of  the  school  above. 

Connected  with  this  class  of  schools  there  might  be  opened  a 


GRADATION  OF  SCHOOLS.  131 

school  or  department  for  those  who  cannot  attend  school  regularly, 
or  for  only  a  short  period  of  the  year,  or  who  may  wish  to  attend 
exclusively  to  a  few  studies.  There  is  no  place  for  this  class  of 
scholars,  in  a  regularly  constituted,  permanent  school,  in  a  large 
village. 

5.  Supplementary  Schools,  and  means  of  various  kinds  should  be 
provided  in  every  system  of  public  instruction,  for  cities  and  large 
villages,  to  supply  deficiencies  in  the  education  of  individuals  whose 
school  attendance  has  been  prematurely  abridged,  or  from  any  cause 
interfered  with,  and  to  carry  forward  as  far  and  as  long  as  practicable 
into  after  life,  the  training  and  attainments  commenced  in  childhood. 

Evening  Schools  should  be  opened  for  apprentices,  clerks,  and 
other  young  persons,  who  have  been  hurried  into  active  employment 
without  a  suitable  elementary  education.  In  these  schools,  those 
who  have  completed  the  ordinary  course  of  school  instruction,  could 
devote  themselves  to  such  studies  as  are  directly  connected  with 
their  several  trades  or  pursuits,  while  those  whose  early  education 
was  entirely  neglected,  can  supply,  to  some  extent,  such  deficiencies. 
It  is  not  beyond  the  legitimate  scope  of  a  system  of  public  instruc- 
tion, to  provide  for  the  education  of  adults,  who,  from  any  cause, 
in  early  life  were  deprived  of  advantages  of  school  instruction. 

Libraries,  and  courses  of  familiar  lectures,  with  practical  illustra- 
tions, collections  in  natural  history,  and  the  natural  sciences,  a  sys- 
tem of  scientific  exchanges  between  schools  of  the  same,  and  of 
different  towns, — these  and  other  means  of  extending  and  improving 
the  ordinary  instruction  of  the  school-room  and  of  early  life,  ought 
to  be  provided,  not  only  by  individual  enterprise  and  liberality,  but 
by  the  public,  and  the  authorities  entrusted  with  the  care  and  advance- 
ment of  popular  education. 

One  or  more  of  that  class  of  educational  institutions  known  as 
"  Reform  Schools,"  "  Schools  of  Industry,"  or  "  Schools  for  Juvenile 
Offenders,"  should  receive  such  children,  as  defying  the  restraining 
influence  of  parental  authority,  and  the  discipline  and  regulations  of 
the  public  schools,  or  such  as  are  abandoned  by  orphanage,  or  worse 
than  orphanage,  by  parental  neglect  or  example,  to  idle,  vicious  and 
pilfering  habits,  are  found  hanging  about  places  of  public  resort,  pol- 
luting the  atmosphere  by  their  profane  and  vulgar  speech,  alluring, 
to  their  own  bad  practices,  children  of  the  same,  and  other  conditions 
of  life,  and  originating  or  participating  in  every  street  brawl  and  low- 
bred riot.  Such  children  cannot  be  safely  gathered  into  the  public 
schools ;  and  if  they  are,  their  vagrant  habits  are  chafed  by  the  re- 
straints of  school  discipline.  They  soon  become  irregular,  play 
truant,  are  punished  and  expelled,  and  from  that  time  their  course  is 
almost  uniformly  downward,  until  on  earth  there  is  no  lower  point  to 
reach. 

Accustomed,  as  many  such  children  have  been  from  infancy,  to 
sights  and  sounds  of  open  and  abandoned  profligacy,  trained  to  an 
utter  want  of  self-respect,  and  the  decencies  and  proprieties  of  life, 
as  exhibited  in  dress,  person,  manners  and  language,  strangers  to 
those  motives  of  self-improvement  which  spring  from  a  sense  of  so- 


132  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

cia'  .uoral  and  religious  obligation,  their  regeneration  involves  the 
harmonious  co-operation  of  earnest  philanthropy,  missionary  enter- 
prise, and  sanctified  wisdom.  The  districts  of  all  our  large  cities 
where  this  class  of  children  are  found,  are  the  appropriate  field  of 
home  missions,  of  unobtrusive  personal  effort  and  charity,  and  of 
systematized  plans  of  local  benevolence,  embracing  friendly  inter- 
course with  parents,  an  affectionate  interest  in  the  young,  the  gather- 
ing of  the  latter  into  week-day,  infant,  and  primary  schools,  and 
schools  where  the  use  of  the  needle,  and  other  forms  of  labor  appro- 
priate to  the  sex  and  age  of  the  pupils  can  be  given,  the  gathering 
of  both  old  and  young  into  Sabbath  schools  and  worshipping  assem- 
blies, the  circulation  of  books  and  tracts,  of  other  than  a  strictly 
religious  character,  the  encouragement  of  cheap,  innocent  and  hu- 
manizing games,  sports  and  festivities,  the  obtaining  employment  for 
adults  who  may  need  it,  and  procuring  situations  as  apprentices, 
clerks,  &c.,  for  such  young  persons  as  may  be  qualified  by  age, 
capacity  and  character.  By  individual  efforts  and  the  combined 
efforts  of  many,  working  in  these  and  other  ways,  from  year  to  year, 
these  moral  jungles  can  be  broken  up, — these  infected  districts  can 
be  purified, — these  waste  places  of  society  can  be  reclaimed,  and 
many  abodes  of  penury,  ignorance  and  vice  can  be  converted  by  ed- 
ucation, economy  and  industry,  into  homes  of  comfort,  peace  and  joy. 


DISTRICT  SCHOOL-HOUSE  IN  CENTREMILL. 


133 


PLAN  AND  DESCRIPTION  OF  DISTRICT  SCHOOL-HOUSE  IN  CENTREMILI., 
NORTH  PROVIDENCE,  R.  I. 


This  house  was  erected  after  designs  by  Mr.  Tefl,  of  Providence.  It 
stands  back  from  the  highway,  on  an  elevated  site,  in  the  midst  of  a 
grove,  and  for  beauty  ot  design 
and  convenience  of  arrangement, 
is  not  surpassed  by  any  similar 
structure  in  New  England.  It  is 
26  feet  by  51,  and  13  feet  high  in 
the  clear,  with  two  departments 


on  the  same  floor. 


A,  Boys'  entry,  6  feet  by  10. 

B,  Girls'  ditto". 

C,  Primary  department,  20  feet  by 
25,  with  desks  and  seats  attached 
for  70  pupils. 

D,  Secondary,  or  Grammar  depart- 
ment, 25  feet  by  25,  with  desks 
and  chairs  for  64  pupils;  see  p. 
120. 

r,  Register  for  hot  air. 

r,  r,  Flues  for  ventilation. 

c,  Closets  for  dinner  pails  of  those 

who  come  from  a  distance 
st  Sink. 


The  smoke  pipe  is  carried  up  be- 
tween the  ventilating  flues,  and  the 
top  of  the  chimney  is  finished  so  as  to 
accommodate  the  bell. 


o     o 

o    o 

o  o 

o    o 

o    o 

o    o 

o     o 

o    o 

r 

o    o 

o     o 

o    o 

0      0 

o    o 

o     o 

o     o 

o     o 

^"~™  ~™ 

0 

Q.  —  Q. 

'  

o    o 

o     o 

o    o 

o    o 

o    o 

0      0 

0       0 

O      0 

0      O 

IQ   o 

o     o 

o    o 

26 


134  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

PLAN  OF  SCHOOL-HOUSE  AT  WASHINGTON  VILLAGE  IN  COVENTRY,  R.  I. 

The  following  cut  presents  the  ground  plan  of  the  new  school-house  in  the 
village  of  Washington,  in  the  town  of  Coventry,  R.  I.  The  location  is  on  the 
high  ground  in  the  rear  of  the  village,  and  commands  an  extensive  prospect  in 
every  direction.  The  site  and  yard,  occupying  one  acre,  was  given  to  the  dis- 
trict by  Governor  Whipple.  The  whole  structure,  without  and  within,  is  an 
ornament  to  the  village,  and  ranks  among  the  best  school-houses  in  Rhode 
Island. 


A— Boy's  entrance. 

B— Girl's  entrance. 

C— Primary  school-room. 

D— Secondary,  or  Grammar  Depart- 


F — Desks  for  two,  with  iron  end-piece. 
G — Chairs  supported  on  iron  pedestal. 
H — Register  for  hot  air. 
R — Flue  for  ventilation,  within  which 
is  carried  up  the  smoke-pipe. 


ment. 
E— Teacher's  platform. 

The  two  school-rooms  can  be  thrown  into  one,  for  any  general  exercise  of 
the  two  schools,  by  sliding  doors. 

The  two  rooms  are  uniformly  heafed  by  a  furnace  in  the  basement. 

There  is  a  well,  sink,  basin,  mats,  scrapers,  bell,  and  all  the  necessary  fixtures 
and  appendages  of  a  school-house  of  the  first  class. 

The  cost  of  the  building  and  furniture  was  $2,300. 

The  district  possesses  a  library  of  upwards  of  four  hundred  volumes,  the  cost 
of  which  was  raised  by  subscription  in  the  District. 


ALBANY  NORMAL  SCHOOL  CHAIR  AND  DESK. 


PUBLIC  HIGH  SCHOOL-HOUSE. 


135 


PUBLIC  SCHOOL-HOUSE  IN  WAEREJJ,  R.  I. 


Fig.  L 


THE  above  cut  exhibits  a  front  view  of  the  Public  School-house 
erected  in  the  village  of  Warren,  at  the  expense  of  the  town,  in 
1847-48,  after  drawings  made  by  Mr.  Teft,  of  Providence,  under  the 
directions  of  a  committee  of  the  town,  who  consulted  with  the  Com- 
missioner of  Public  Schools,  and  visited  Providence,  Boston,  Salem, 
Newburyport  and  other  places,  in  order  to  ascertain  the  latest  im- 
provements in  school  architecture,  before  deciding  on  the  details  of 
the  plan.  To  this  committee,  and  particularly  to  two  of  its  members, 
Mr.  E.  W.  Burr  and  Mr.  G.  S.  Gardiner,  is  the  town  largely  indebted 
for  the  time  and  personal  supervision  w^hich  they  devoted  to  this 
public  improvement,  from  its  first  inception  to  its  completion,  without 
any  other  reward  than  the  realization  of  their  wish  to  secure  for  their 
town  the  best  school-house,  for  the  amount  of  money  expended,  in 
the  State.  The  Commissioner  of  Public  Schools  remarked,  in  his 
address  at  the  dedication  of  the  house,  in  September,  1848,  "  that,  for 
location,  style,  construction,  means  of  warming,  ventilation,  and  clean- 
liness, and  for  the  beauty  and  convenience  of  the  seats  and  desks,  he 
had  not  seen  a  public  school-house  superior  to  this  in  New  England. 
It  is  a  monument  at  once  of  the  liberality  of  the  town,  and  of  a  wise 
economy  on  the  part  of  the  committee."  The  town  appropriated 
$10,000,  and  the  committee  expended  $8,594. 

The  opening  of  the  Public  School  in  this  edifice  was  followed  by 
a  large  increase  of  attendance  from  the  children  of  the  town. 


136 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


The  lot  is  225  deep  and  100  feet  wide  for  a  depth  of  125  feet,  and  161  feet  wide 
for  the  remaining  64  feet.  It  is  divided  into  three  yards,  as  exhibited  in  the 
ground  plan,  (Fig.  2,)  each  substantially  inclosed,  and  planted  with  trees  and 
shrubbery. 

The  dimensions  of  the  building  are  62  feet  by  44  on  the  ground.  It  is  built  of 
brick  in  the  most  workmanlike  manner. 

Most  of  the  details  of  construction,  and  of  the  arrangement  in  the  interior,  are 
similar  to  those  described  on  page  214. 

Each  room  is  ventilated  by  openings  controlled  by  registers,  both  at  the  floor 
and  the  ceiling,  into  four  flues  carried  up  in  the  wall,  and  by  a  large  flue  con- 
structed of  thoroughly  seasoned  boards,  smooth  on  the  inside,  in  the  partition 
wall,  (Fig.  3,  x.) 

The  whole  building  is  uniformly  warmed  by  two  of  Culver's  furnaces  placed 
in  the  cellar. 

Every  means  of  cleanliness  are  provided,  such  as  scrapers,  mats,  sink  with 
pump,  wash  basin,  towels,  hooks  for  outer  garments,  umbrella  stands,  &c. 

The  tops  of  the  desks  are  covered  with  cloth,  and  the  aisles  are  to  be  cheaply 
carpeted,  so  as  to  diminish,  if  not  entirely  prevent,  the  noise  which  the  moving 
of  slates  and  books,  and  the  passing  to  and  fro,  occasion  in  a  school- room. 

Fig.  2. 


A — Front  yard. 

B— Girls'  yard. 

C — Boys'  yard. 

P— Privies. 

W— Well. 

F — Culver's  Furnace. 


w 


isa    Ei 

n     n 

a 


PUBLIC  HIGH  SCHOOL-HOUSE  IN  WARREN. 
Fig.  3  —FIRST  FLOOR. 


137 


A — Front  entrance. 

B — Girls'  entrance,  with  mats,  scra- 
pers, hooks  for  clothes,  a  sink,  purnp, 
basin,  &c. 

C— Boys'  entrance  do. 

R — Recitation  rooms,  connected  by- 
sliding  doors. 

R,  P— Platform  for  recitation,  with  a 
blackboard  in  the  rear. 

T— Teacher's  platform. 

S — Seats  and  desks ;  see  page  205. 


Q.— Library  and  apparatus. 

w — Windows,   with  inside  Venetian 

blinds, 
c— Flues  for  ventilation  in  the  outer 

wall. 
x — Flue    for   ventilation,  lined  with 

smooth,  well  seasoned  boards, 
y — Bell-rope,  accessible  to  the  teacher 

by  an  opening  in  the  wall, 
r— Hot  air  registers. 


Fig.  4.— SECOND  FLOOR. 


138 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


UNION  SCHOOL-HOUSE,  AT  WOONSOCKET  AND  CHEPACHET,  R.  I. 

BY  the  school  law  of  Rhode  Island,  two  or  more  adjoining  school  districts  in 
the  same,  or  adjoining  towns,  may,  by  concurrent  vote,  agree  to  unite  for  the 
purpose  of  maintaining  a  secondary  or  grammar  school,  for  the  older  and  more 
advanced  pupils  of  such  associating  districts.  Under  this  provision  the  four 
school  districts  in  the  town  of  Cumberland,  which  comprise  the  village  of 
Woonsocket,  voted  to  unite  and  provide  a  school-house  for  the  more  advanced 
pupils,  leaving  the  younger  to  be  accommodated  in  their  respective  districts. 
The  Union  school-house  is  located  on  a  beautiful  site,  the  donation  of  Edward 
Harris,  Esq.,  and  is  built  substantially  after  the  plan  of  the  Warren  Public 
school-house,  already  described,  at  a  cost  of  $7,000.  The  following  are  the  front 
and  side  elevations,  as  originally  drawn  by  Mr.  Teft,  but  not  adopted  by  the 
committee. 


SIDE  ELEVATION. 


FRONT  ELEVATION. 

Under  the  provision  above  cited,  the  three  districts  into  which  the  village  of 
Chepachet,  in  the  town  of  Glocester,  is  divided,  voted  to  establish  a  Union 
School,  and  to  provide  a  suitable  house  for  the  same.  The  building  is  50  feet  by 
34,  with  two  stories,  and  stands  in  the  centre  of  a  large  lot,  a  little  removed  from 
the  main  street,  and  is  the  ornament  and  pride  of  the  village.  The  lower  floor 
is  divided  into  two  apartments;  one  for  the  Primary,  and  the  other  for  an  Inter- 
mediate School,  for  the  younger  pupils  of  the  village,  while  the  Union  or  Sec- 
ondary School  occupies  the  whole  of  the  second  floor. 


UNION  SCHOOL-HOUSE  IN  CHEPACHET. 
Fig.  1.— PLAN  op  FIRST  FLOOR. 


139 


mmm 


Qmnmi 


n 


A— Entrance  for  Girls  to  Secondary  School.  U. 

B—       "          "  Boys  "         "  " 

C—  "  Girls  to  Primary,  E,  and  Intermediate  School,  F. 

D_       «          «   Boys  "         "  "  "  « 

E — Primary  School-room. 

F — Intermediate      '• 

U— Secondary        "  L — Manton  Glocester  Libran- of  900  volumes. 

R— Recitation  room.  S— Stove.     V — Flue  for  ventilation. 

G— Seat  and  desk  attached,  for  two  pupils,  with  iron  ends. 

Fig.  2.— PLAN  OF  SECOND  FLOOR. 


o°Lli 


JUJ 


D 


D 


140 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


PLAN,  &c.,  OF  UNION  SCHOOL-HOUSE  IN  PAWTUCKET,  R.  I 

Fig.  1— PERSPECTIVE. 


This  school-house  is  calculated  to  accommodate,  on  the  first  floor,  a  Pri- 
mary School,  (D,)  with  seats  arid  desks  for  one  hundred  and  sixty  pupils;  two 
Intermediate  Schools,  (E,  E;)  for  sixty-four  pupils  each ;  and  on  the  second  floor 
a  High  School,  (F,)  for  one  hundred  and  seventy  pupils. 

The  building  is  warmed  and  ventilated  by  a  furnace  in  the  cellar,  from  which 
the  hot  air  is  conveyed  into  the  several  apartments,  as  indicated  by  the  regis- 
ters, (r,  r,  r,  r,)  in  Figs.  2  and  3,  and  discharged  by  flues  carried  up  in  the  walls, 
as  seen  at  v,  v,  v,  v. 

Each  school-room  is  furnished  with  an  appropriate  place  for  outer  garments, 
and  with  scrapers,  mats  and  other  means  of  neatness  and  cleanliness. 

The  boys  and  girls  have  each  a  separate  yard  in  the  rear,  and  separate  en- 
trances into  the  school-rooms. 

The  High  School  is  furnished  with  seats  and  desk  having  cast-iron  end 
pieces  similar  to  those  described  on  page  282. 

The  Primary  and  Intermediate  school-rooms  are  furnished  with  the  patent 
Revolving  Pivot  Chair,  and  School-desk,  manufactured  by  J.  L.  Mott,  264  Water 
street,  New  York.  The  seat  of  the  chair  is  wood;  all  other  parts  are  of  cast- 
iron.  The  seat  and  back  turn  on  a  pivot,  while  the  pedestal  is  screwed  fast  to 
the  floor.  The  height  of  the  lower  part  of  the  top  of  the  desk  is  just  equal  to 
the  highest  part  of  the  back  of  the  chair,  so  as  to  allow  it  to  pass  under.  The 
front  edge  of  the  seat  is  in  a  perpendicular  line  with  the  edge  of  the  top  of  the 
desk,  so  that  the  scholar  is  required  to  sit  erect  wrhen  engaged  in  writing  or 
studying,  and  the  same  time  that  part  of  his  back  which  requires  support  is  fully 
in  contact  with  the  chair. 

Since  the  chairs  above  described  were  placed  in  this  house,  Mr.  Mott  has 
modified  the  patterns — so  as  to  carry  the  back  piece  higher,  and  thus  give  sup- 
port to  the  muscles  above  the  small  of  the  back.  The  iron  can  be  covered  with 
felt,  and  thus  the  rapid  conduction  of  heat  from  the  body,  especially  from  the 
spinal  column,  in  children  thinly  clad,  and  of  delicate  constitutions  may  be 
prevented. 


UNION  SCHOOL  HOUSE  IN  PAWTUCKET. 


141 


UNION  SCHOOL- HOUSE  ix  PAWTUCKET. 

Fig.  2.— PLAN  OF  FIRST  FLOOR. 


P 

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1                             1    1                             1 

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A— Entrance  to  High  School. 

B— Entrance  for  Boys  to  the  Primary  and  Intermediate  Schools. 
C— Entrance  for  Girls  to  the  Primary  and  Intermediate  Schools. 
D— School-room,  30  feet  by  24,  for  Primary  School. 
E,  E—  "        "       40  feet  by  16,  for  Intermediate  Schools. 
F—       «       t{       40  feet  by  40,  for  High  School. 
G — Room  for  Apparatus,  &c. 
H — Recitation  room  to  High  School,  20  feet  by  16. 

I — K — Entrance  room,  one  for  Boys  and  the  other  for  Girls,  fitted  up  with 
hooks,  shelves,  wash-stand,  &c. 
T — Teacher's  desk  without  any  platform. 

Fig.  3. — PLAN  OF  SECOND  FLOOR — HIGH  SCHOOL. 


PUBLIC  SCHOOL-HOUSES,  PROVIDENCE. 


PLANS  AND  DESCRIPTIONS  OF  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL-HOUSES  IN 
PROVIDENCE,  R.  I. 

PRIMARY  SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

THESE  buildings  are  located  in  different  parts  of  the  city,  and  are  designed 
for  the  accommodation  of  children  from  four  to  six  or  seven  years  of  age,  or 
until  they  are  prepared  to  enter  the  intermediate  schools. 


No.  1.— View  of  a  Primary  School-House. 


These  school-houses  stand  back  from  thirty  to  sixty  feet  from  the  line  of 
the  street,  and  near  the  center  of  lots  varying  from  eighty  to  one  hundred  feet 
in  breadth,  and  from  one  hundred  to  one  hundred  and  twenty  feet  in  length. 
Each  lot  is  inclosed  by  a  neat  and  substantial  fence,  six  feet  high,  and  is 
divided  into  two  yards— one  for  boys  and  the  other  for  girls— with  suitable 
out-buildings,  shade  trees,  and  shrubbery. 


These  houses  are  each  forty  feet  long"  by  thirty-three  feet  wide,  with  twelve- 
feet  posts,  built  of  wood,  in  a  plain,  substantial  manner,  and,  with  the  fences, 
are  painted  white,  presenting  a  neat  and  attractive  exterior. 

The  entrance  is  into  a  lobby  [A]  and  thence  into  an  open  area,  where  stands 
the  stove  [a].  A  portion  of  the  lobby  is  appropriated  to  bins  for  charcoal  \c\ 
and  anthracite  [d],  which  is  the  fuel  used  in  all  the  schools;  the  remainder [Bj 
is  occupied  by  a  sink,  and  as  depositories  for  brooms,  brushes,  &c.  Each 
room  is  arched,  thereby  securing  an  average  height  of  thirteen  feet,  with  an 
opening  in  the  center  of  the  arch,  two  feet  in  diameter,  for  ventilation.  The 
ventilator  is  controlled  by  a  cord  passing  over  a  pulley,  and  descending  into 
the  room  near  the  teacher's  desk  [b].  In  each  end  of  the  attic  is  a  circular 
window,  which,  turning  on  an  axis,  can  be  opened  and  closed  by  cords,  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  ventilator. 


PRIMARY  SC1IOOL-HOUSE,  PROVIDENCE. 


143 


czzi  cm    CZD  tz=]  i — i 


No.  2. — Interior  of  a  Primary  School-House. 


The  teacher's  platform  [C]  is  five  feet  wide,  twenty  feet  long,  and  seven 
inches  high,  with  a  black-board  ten  feet  long  and  three  feet  wide  on  the  wall 
in  the  rear. 

The  floor  is  of  inch  and  a  half  plank,  tongued  and  grooved;  and,  for  the 
purpose  of  securing  warmth  and  firmness,  and  avoiding  noise,  is  laid  on 
cement. 

The  windows,  eleven  in  number,  of  twenty-four  lights,  of  seven  by  nine 
glass,  are  hung  with  weights,  and  furnished  with  inside  blinds.  The  sides  of 
the  room  and  entries  are  ceiled  all  round  with  wood  as  high  as  the  window- 
sills,  which  are  four  feet  from  the  floor.  The  rest  of  the  walls  are  plastered, 
and  covered  with  white  hard  finish.  Each  room  is  provided  with  sixty  seats 
[s]  and  desks  [t],  placed  in  six  ranges;  each  range  containing  ten  seats  and 
desks,  of  three  different  sizes,  and  each  seat  and  desk  accommodating  two 
scholars,  or  one  hundred  and  twenty  in  all. 

The  center  aisle  is  three  feet  and  a  half  wide,  and  each  of  the  others  about 
two  feet. 

The  desks  are  over  three  feet  long,  by  sixteen  inches  wide,  with  a  shelf 
beneath  for  books.  The  upper  surface  of  the  desk  [a],  except  about  two 
•nches  at  the  top  [b],  slopes  one  inch  and  a  half  in  a  foot. 


144 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


No   3.— View  of  Top  of  a  Desk,  and  Sectional  View  of  Primary  Seats  and  Desks. 

The  front  of  the  desk,  constituting  the  back  of  the  next  seat,  slopes  one 
inch  in  a  foot.  The  seat  also  inclines  a  very  little  from  the  edge.  The  seats 
are  of  four  different  sizes,  varying  from  seven  to  ten  inches  wide,  and  from 
nine  to  fourteen  inches  in  height,  the  lowest  being  nearest  the  teacher's 
platform. 


INTERMEDIATE  SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

All  the  buildings  of  this  class  are  two  stories  high,  affording  accommoda- 
tions for  two  schools,  a  primary  and  an  intermediate.  These  houses  are 
generally  in  pleasant  situations,  on  large  lots,  varying  in  size  from  one  hundred 
feet  wide  by  one  hundred  and  twenty  feet  long,  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  by 
two  hundred  feet. 

Rows  of  shade  trees,  consisting  of  elms,  lindens,  and  maples,  are  planted 
along  the  side-walks  and  the  fences  inclosing  the  yards ;  and  evergreens,  the 
mountain  ash,  and  other  ornamental  trees,  are  placed  within  the  inclosures. 

These  houses  are  forty-four  feet  long,  by  thirty-three  feet  wide.  Some  of 
them  are  built  of  wood,  the  remainder  of  brick,  and  all  in  a  tasteful  and 
substantial  style. 

The  rooms  are  large,  and  easily  ventilated,  being  twelve  feet  in  the  clear, 
with  large  openings  in  the  ceiling  of  the  upper  room,  and  on  the  sides  in  the 
lower  room,  leading  into  flues  in  the  walls,  which  conduct  the  foul  air  into  the 
attic,  from  which  it  escapes  at  circular  windows  in  the  gables  of  the  buildings. 
These  flues  and  windows  can  be  opened  and  closed  by  cords  passing  over 
pulleys,  and  descending  into  the  rooms  below,  where  the  teachers  can  control 
them  with  ease. 


d 


No.  5. — Sections  of  Ventilators. 


In  this  cut,  the  cord  [i],  passing  over  the  pulley  [?'],  raising  [//],  hung  on 
,  opens  wholly  or  partially  the  ventilator  [/],  a  circular  aperture 


hinges  at 
three  feet 


diameter.    The  plan  of  ventilating  the  lower  rooms  is  shown  on 


10 


146 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


e  diagram,  m  which  [a\  represents  a  cord  running  over  a 
d  to  [c],  a  board  three  feet  long  by  one  foot  wide,  opening 
.  [b],  the  top  of  the  lower  room,  and  [d],  the  floor  of  the 
the  flue  [e],  ascending  to  the  attic. 


the  other  part  of  the  diagram,  in  which  [a]  represents  a  cord  running  over  a 
pulley,  anil  attached  '    *" 
the  space  between  I  _ 
upper,  leading  into  the"  flue  [e  , 

The  windows,  nine  in  number  in  each  school-room,  of  twelve  lights,  of  ten 
by  sixteen  glass,  are  hung  with  weights,  so  as  to  be  easily  opened  at  top  and 
bottom,  and  furnished  with  Venetian  blinds  inside,  to  regulate  the  amount  of 
light  admitted. 

The  floors  are  of  hard  pine  boards,  an  inch  and  a  half  thick,  and  about  six 
inches  wide,  tongued  and  grooved,  and  laid  on  mortar,  as  a  protection  against 
fire,  for  the  prevention  of  noise,  and  to  secure  warmth  and  firmness.  All  the 
rooms,  entries,  and  stairways  are  ceiled  up  with  matched  boards  about  four 
feet,  as  high  as  the  window-sills.  The  remaining  portions  of  the  walls  are 
plastered,  and  coated  with  white  hard  finish. 


No.  6. — Interior  of  an  Intermediate  School-House. 

The  walls  of  some  of  these  buildings  are  solid  stone-work,  faced  with 
brick;  others  are  built  with  double  brick  walls,  as  above  shown,  connected  by 
ties  of  iron  or  brick. 


INTERMEDIATE  SCHOOL-HOUSE,  PROVIDENCE. 


147 


As  the  rooms  in  the  lower  stories  of  this  class  of  buildings  are  appropriated 
to  primary  sckools,  and  are  furnished  in  the  same  manner  as  those  already 
described,  the  preceding  cut  is  intended  to  serve  the  double  purpose  of  exhibit- 
ing on  the  first  floor  only  the  improvements  on  the  former  plan,  and,  on  the 
second,  the  whole  view  of  a  room  for  an  intermediate  school. 

The  steps  [a, «, a\  are  broad,  granite  blocks,  with  scrapers  on  each  end. 
The  side  doors  [A,  A],  one  for  boys,  the  other  for  girls,  lead  into  entries,  eight 
feet  by  ten,  from  which  the  pupils  of  the  primary  schools  pass  through  the 
doors  '[B,  BJ  into  the  main  rooms,  which  differ  from  those  above  described,  in 
having  a  space  [0,  o],  two  feet  wide,  on  the  back  part  of  the  rooms,  for  reading 
and  other  class  exercises;  and  the  recitation-room,  [D],  another  valuable 
improvement,  as  it  avoids  the  confusion  arising  from  having  two  recitations  in 
one  room  at  the  same  time. 

The  flight  of  stairs  in  each  entry,  commencing  at  the  points  [R,  R],  and 
ascending  in  the  direction  of  [1,  2, 3],  lands  on  the  open  space  [P]  in  the  upper 
entry,  from  which  the  pupils  pass  through  the  doors  [C,  C]  into  the  school- 
room. 

Coal-bins  and  convenient  closets,  for  brooms,  brushes,  &c.,  are  built  under 
the  stairs,  in  the  lower  entries ;  and  similar  closets,  for  the  same  purposes,  are 
provided  in  the  upper  entries. 

The  large  area  [H,  H],  thirty  feet  long  by  seven  wide,  is  the  same  in  both 
the  rooms,  and  is  occupied  by  the  principal  teacher  in  each  school,  for  such 
class  exercises  as  may  be  more  conveniently  managed  there  than  in  the  other 
place  0,  0],  left  for  the  same  purpose.  The  position  of  the  stove  [»]  is  such  as 
not  to  render  it  uncomfortably  warm  on  the  front  seats,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
not  to  interfere  with  the  passage  of  classes  through  the  door  [G]  into  the 
recitation- room  [D],  which  is  fourteen  feet  by  ten,  and,  like  all  the  school- 
rooms, furnished  with  black-boards.  The  lower  room  is  lighted  by  a  window 
over  the  front  door,  and  by  the  side-lights  ;  and  the  upper  one  by  a  double  or 
rnullion  window,  of  sixteen  lights,  of  ten  by  sixteen  glass. 

The  side  aisles  [m,  m]  are  two  feet  and  a  half  wide  ;  the  others  [P,  P,  &c.] 
are  only  eighteen  inches  wide,  except  the  middle  one  [C],  which  is  three  and 
a  half  feet.  The  passage  across  the  center  of  the  room  is  about  a  foot  and  a 
half  wide,  and  is  very  convenient  for  teachers  in  passing  to  the  different  parti 
of  the  room,  and  also  for  scholars  in  going  to  and  from  their  recitations. 

The  seats  and  desks,  in  the  front  part  of  this  room,  are  made  and  arranged 
on  the  same  plan  as  those  in  the  primary  school-rooms  above  described,  differ 
ing  from  them  only  in  being  one  size  larger.  The  lower  end,  or  foot  of  each 
perpendicular  support,  or  end-piece,  is  strongly  fastened  into  a  groove  in  a 
"shoe,"  or  piece  oi  plank,  which.,  being  screwed  to  the  floor,  secures  the  desks 
in  a  durable  manner,  and  in  a  firm  position. 

The  others  are  constructed  upon  a  different  plan,  designed  especially  for  the 
accommodation  of  pupils  while  writing.  These  desks  and  seats  are  "of  three 
different  sizes, 


No.  7.— Section  of  a  Writing-Desk  and  Seat 


148  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

The  top  of  the  desk  [a]  is  of  pine,  one  inch  and  a  half  thick,  fifteen  inches 
wide,  and  three  feet  and  a  half  long.  These  desks  are  twenty-seven  inches 
high  on  the  front,  and  twenty-four  on  the  side  next  to  the  seats.  A  space 
about  three  inches  wide,  on  the  front  edge  of  the  top,  is  planed  down  to  a 
level,  and  an  inkstand  is  let  into  the  center  of  this,  even  with  the  surface,  and 
covered  with  a  small  lid.  The  ends  of  these  desks  are  an  inch  and  a  half 
thick,  and  fastened  by  a  strong  tenon  to  the  shoe  [c],  which  is  screwed  to  the 
floor.  The  front  of  the  desk,  and  the  shelf  [i],  for  books,  &c.,  are  inch  boards ; 
the  whole  desk,  made  in  the  strongest  manner,  is  painted  a  pleasant  green,  and 
varnished.  In  the  next  smaller  size,  the  same  proportion  is  observed,  but  all 
the  dimensions  are  one  inch  less;  and  in  the  third,  or  smallest  size,  the  dimen- 
sions are  all  one  inch  less  than  in  the  second.  For  each  desk  there  are  two 
chairs,  resting  on  cast-iron  supporters  [d],  an  inch  and  a  quarter  in  diameter, 
with  a  wide  flange  at  each  end ;  the  upper  one,  screwed  to  the  under  side  of 
the  seat  [e],  is  a  little  smaller  than  the  lower,  which  is  fastened  to  the  floor  by 
five  strong  screws,  rendering  the  chair  almost  immovable.  The  largest  size 
seats  0]  in  these  rooms  are  fourteen  inches  in  diameter  and  fifteen  inches 
high,  with  backs,  twenty-eight  inches  from  [g]  to  the  top,  slanting  an  inch  and 
a  quarter  to  a  foot.  These  backs  are  made  with  three  slats,  fastened  by  strong 
tenons  into  a  top-piece,  like  some  styles  of  common  chairs,  and  screwed  to  the 
seat,  while  the  middle  one  extends  down  into  a  socket  on  the  foot  of  the  iron 
standard.  The  seats,  like  the  desks,  are  diminished  one  inch  for  the  middle 
size,  and  two  for  the  smallest,  preserving  the  proportions  in  the  different  sizes, 
which  adapts  them  to  the  sizes  of  the  desks. 


GRAMMAR  SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

There  are  six  buildings  of  this  class,  constructed  on  the  same  plan,  and  of 
the  same  size.  They  are  seventy  feet  long  by  forty  wide,  with  a  front  pro- 
jection, twenty-eight  feet  long  by  fourteen  feet  wide.  They  are  located  on 
very  large  lots,  varying  from  one  hundred  and  fifty  to  two  hundred  feet  long— 
from  a  hundred  and  twenty  to  a  hundred  and  fifty  feet  wide.  All  of  them, 
except  one,  are  on  corner  lots,  and  all  have  large  open  spaces  around  them. 
These,  and  all  the  other  public  school-houses  in  the  city,  are  protected  with 
Gluimby's  lightning-rods,  and  each  is  furnished  with  a  bell,  which  can  be  heard 
ia  the  remotest  parts  of  its  district. 

In  the  accompanying  view,  No.  9,  the  engraver  has  represented  a  few  trees,  a 
little  larger  than  any  at  present  around  these  buildings,  because  he  could  not 
crowd  all  the  trees  and  shrubbery  into  the  picture,  without  obscuring  the  lower 
part  of  the  house. 

The  cut  on  p.  91,  No.  10,  is  a  ground  plan,  on  a  reduced  scale,  of  a  Grammar 
School-House,  including  a  general  view  of  the  cellar,  yards,  fences,  gates, 
sidewalks,  &c. 

The  yards  around  each  of  the  grammar  school-houses  contain  from  18,000 
to  20,000  square  feet,  or  between  a  third  and  half  an  acre.  These  grounds  are 
inclosed,  and  divided  into  three  separate  yards,  by  substantial  close  board 
fences  [/,/,/,  f],  six  feet  high,  neatly  made,  and  painted  white.  The  boys' 
play-ground  [B],  and  that  of  the  girls  [G],  are  large;  but  the  front  yard  [E]  is 
small,  and,  not  being  occupied  by  pupils,  is  planted  with  trees  and  shrubbery. 
The  graveled  sidewalks  [s,  5,  s],  running  on  two  sides  of  all  the  grammar  school 
lots,  and  on  three  of  some  of  them,  are  shaded  by  rows  of  elms,  maples,  and 
lindens,  set  near  the  curb-stones.  The  gates  [A,  C,  D]  and  the  graveled  walks 
[d,  d,  d]  lead  to  the  front  and  the  two  side  doors  of  the  school-house ;  and  [/] 
is  a  large  gate  for  carting  in  coal,  &c.  The  out-buildings  [?',  i]  are  arranged 
with  a  large  number  of  separate  apartments  on  both  sides,  all  well  ventilated, 
each  furnished  with  a  door,  and  the  whole  surrounded  with  evergreens. 

In  the  plan  of  the  projection  [H]  the  stairway  [r]  leads  to  the  cellar,  which 
is  seven  feet  in  the  clear,  and  extends  under  the  whole  of  the  main  building. 
These  cellars  are  well  lighted,  having  eight  windows  [W,  W],  with  ten  lights 
df  seven  by  nine  glass.  The  windows,  being  hung  with  hinges  on  the  upper 


150 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


No. 10  . — Ground  Plan,  &c.,  of  a  Grammar  School-House. 

side,  and  fastened  with  hooks  and  staples  at  the  lower  edge,  may  be  opened  by 
raising  them  intc  a  horizontal  position,  where  they  are  fastened  with  hooks  as 
when  closed.  With  this  arrangement,  it  is  easy  to  keep  the  cellars  well  ven- 
tilated at  all  seasons.  The  openings  for  the  admission  of  coal  into  the  bins 
[0,0],  one  for  anthracite,  and  the  other  for  charcoal,  are  furnished  with  sheet- 
iron  shutters,  fastening  on  the  inside.  Every  school-house  has,  in  the  cellar, 
an  abundant  supply  of  good  water,  obtained  from  a  fountain,  or  from  a  well, 
which  is  generally  outside  of  the  building,  the  water  being  brought  in  by  a 
pump  [P].  A  supply  of  good  water  for  a  school-house  should  not  be  consid- 
ered merely  as  a  convenience,  but  as  absolutely  necessary. 

The  horizontal  section  of  a  furnace  [F]  shows  merely  the  ground  plan. 
The  cold  air  passes  through  [a]  to  the  air-chamber,  where  it  is  warmed  by  the 
fires  in  [p,  p],  two  cast-iron  cylinders,  fourteen  inches  in  diameter.  The 
evaporator  [e]  holds  about  fifteen  gallons  of  water,  which  is  kept  in  a  state  of 
rapid  evaporation,  thus  supplying  the  air-chamber  with  an  abundance  of 
moisture. 

In  the  plan  and  construction  of  the  various  parts  of  these  furnaces,  special 
pains  have  been  taken  to  remove  all  danger  of  fire — an  important  considera- 
tion, which  should  never  be  overlooked.  The  furnace  is  covered  with  stone, 
thickly  coated  with  mortar,  and  the  under  side  of  the  floor  above  is  lathed  and 
plastered,  not  only  above  the  furnace,  but  at  least  ten  feet  from  it  in  every 
direction. 

A  full  description  of  the  construction  and  operation  of  the  furnaces  used  in 
the  public  school-houses  will  be  given  under  another  diagram.  The  cellar 
•walls  and  the  stone  piers  [c,  c,  c,  c,  c]  are  well  pointed,  and  the  whole  inside, 


GRAMMAR  SCHOOL-HOUSE,  PROVIDENCE. 


151 


including  the  wood-work  overhead,  is  neatly  whitewashed,  giving  this  apart 
ment  a  neat  and  pleasant  appearance. 

The  walls  of  all  these  buildings  are  of  stone,  about  two  feet  thick,  faced 
with  common  brick,  and  painted  a  tasteful  color. 


No.  11.— Plan  of  the  First  Floor  of  a  Grammar  School-House. 

There  are  three  entrances  to  these  houses ;  the  front  [A],  and  the  two  side 
doors  [B],  for  boys,  and  [G],  for  girls,  leading  into  the  entries  [F,  C,  C].  The 
front  is  a  large  double  door,  with  a  beautiful  frontice  of  fine  hammered  duincy 
granite.  At  all  the  outside  doors  are  two  or  three  hewn  granite  steps,  fur- 
nished with  four  or  six  scrapers  at  each  door. 

Pupils  belonging  to  the  schools  in  the  lower  story  pass  from  the  side  entries 
into  me  middle  one,  and,  ascending  two  steps  at  [a],  enter  their  respective 
rooms  [T,  S],  which  are  rather  larger  than  those  in  the  primary  and  interme- 
diate school-houses,  previously  described,  being  thirty-six  feet  by  thirty-two 
inside,  and  eleven  feet  high  in  the  clear. 

In  each  of  the  entries  [C,  C]  there  is  a  provision  [t,  t,  t,  t]  for  setting  up  um- 
brellas. It  resembles  a  ladder  placed  in  a  horizontal  position,  and  is  fastened 
to  the  ceiling  on  one  side,  and  supported  on  the  other  by  substantial  posts  of 
oak  or  other  strong  wood,  turned  in  a  tasteful  style,  and  set  into  the  floor. 

The  seats  and  desks  in  the  rooms  [T  and  S]  are  of  the  same  dimensions, 
and  arranged  in  the  same  manner  as  those  in  the  primary  and  the  intermediate 
school-rooms  before  described.  The  small  iron  posts  [c,  c,  c,  c],  about  two  and 
a  half  inches  in  diameter,  supporting  the  floor  above,  are  placed  against  the 
ends  of  the  seats,  so  close  as  not  to  obstruct  the  passages  at  all.  Besides  the 
platforms  [P,  P],  twenty  feet  by  six— the  tables,  three  feet  by  four,  for  the 
teachers,  and  the  closets  [Z,  Z],  for  brushes,  &c.,  there  are  black-boards,  painted 
upon  the  walls,  extending  from  the  doors  [D,  D]  to  the  windows,  fourteen  feet 
long  by  four  wide,  with  the  lines  of  a  stave  painted  on  one  end,  to  aid  in 
giving  instruction  in  vocal  music. 


152 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


The  plan  of  ventilating  these  rooms  on  the  first  floor  is  represented  by  cut 
No.  5,  page  85.  Every  room  is  provided  with  two  ventilators,  each  three  feet 
long  by  about  twelve  inches  wide,  opening  into  flues  of  the  same  dimensions, 
leading  into  the  attic,  from  which  the  impure  air  escapes  at  circular  windows 
in  the  gables.  These  flues  should  have  extended  down  to  the  bottom  of  the 
rooms,  with  openings  on  a  level  with  the  floors,  so  that,  when  the  rooms  are 
warmed  with  air  from  the  furnaces  above  the  temperature  of  the  human 
breath,  they  might  be  ventilated  by  removing  the  foul  air  from  the  lower  parts, 
and  thus  causing  fresh,  warm  air  to  be  slowly  settling  down  upon  the  scholars 
— a  very  pleasant  and  healthful  mode  of  ventilation. 

These  rooms  are  well  warmed  by  heated  air,  admitted  through  registers 
[/•,r],  eighteen  inches  in  diameter,  from  the  furnace  below,  from  which  [p,p] 
tin  pipes,  fourteen  inches  in  diameter,  convey  the  air  to  the  grammar  school- 
rooms in  the  second  story. 

These  rooms  are  large,  with  arched  ceilings,  measuring  twelve  feet  to  the 
foot  of  the  arch,  and  seventeen  to  its  crown.  They  are  each  provided  with 
two  ventilators,  three  feet  and  a  half  in  diameter,  placed  in  the  crown  of  the 
arch,  about  twenty  feet  apart. 

The  entrances  to  the  Grammar  School-rooms  are  by  twro  short  flights  of 
stairs  on  a  side;  from  the  lower  entries  to  [5,5],  spaces  about  three  feet  square, 


O  O  O   Q  O   Q  O  Q         Q    o         Q    Q         Q   Q 

r i  '       i  i       i  r~^  I — i  i 1  i 1  I 1  i — n 

o  o       o  o       o  Q  o  n  o  o  o  o       o  c       o  o 

i       i  i     n  n~n     i 1  i !  i 1  r 1  ! 1 

O    C/        30          O    O-          O  O  00  O   O  O   O          O    O          O    O 


No.  12. — Plan  of  a  Grammar  School-Room. 

and  thence  to  [A,  A],  spaces  three  by  five  feet,  extending  from  the  top  of  the 
stairs  to  the  doors  opening  into  the  school-room. 

The  master's  table  [c],  as  well  as  tables  [d,  d],  for  the  assistants,  are 
movable.  The  large  area  [B,  B],  being  fourteen  inches  above  the  floor  of  the 
room,  is  eight  feet  wide  by  sixty-four  long,  with  large  closets  [u, «]  at  the 
ends,  fitted  up  with  shelves,  &c.,  for  the  use  of  the  teachers. 

The  school-room  is  warmed  by  heated  air,  admitted  at  the  registers,  [r,rj 
and  the  recitation-rooms  [R,  R]  in  the  same  manner,  by  the  small  registers, 
[r,r]  all  of  which  are  connected  with  the  furnace  in  the  cellar  by  large  tin 
pipes  or  conductors. 


GRAMMAR  SCHOOL-HOUSE,  PROVIDENCE. 


153 


The  black-boards,  four  feet  wide,  painted  upon  the  hard-finished  walls,  are 
indicated  by  the  lines  [b,b,b,  &c.]  in  the  recitation-rooms,  and  along  the  walls 
benind  the  master's  table,  extending  on  each  side  to  the  windows  beyond,  [e,  e] 
making,  in  each  Grammar  School,  about  three  hundred  square  feet  of  black- 
board. 

The  long  benches  [e,  e]  are  used  for  seating  temporarily  new  pupils  on  their 
entering  school,  until  the  master  can  assign  them  regular  seats  ;  also  for  seat- 
ing visitors  at  the  quarterly*  examinations.  The  space  [P,  P],  a  broad  step, 
eighteen  feet  long  and  two  feet  wide,  is  used  for  some  class  exercises  on  the 
black-boards.  The  passage  [t,  f],  about  eighteen  inches  wide,  running  the 
whole  length  of  the  room,  affords  great  facility  in  the  movements  of  pupils  to 
and  from  the  recitations  and  other  class  exercises.  The  master's  classes  gen- 
erally recite  in  the  space  [0,  o]  on  the  back  side  of  the  room,  four  feet  wide 
and  sixty-four  feet  long,  where  seats  are  placed  for  scholars  to  sit  during 
recitation,  when  it  is  necessary;  and  the  same  accommodations  are  provided 
in  the  recitation-rooms. 

The  windows  [W,  W,  &c.],  which  are  hung  with  weights,  and  furnished 
with  inside  blinds,  in  the  manner  before  described,  contain  twelve  lights  each, 
of  ten  by  sixteen  glass,  of  the  strongest  kind,  the  Saranac  or  Redford  glass. 

The  quantity  of  air  furnished  for  each  scholar  in  the  public  school-rooms  is 
a  matter  of  no  small  importance.  The  rooms  for  the  primary  and  the  inter- 
mediate schools — the  former  designed  to  accommodate  one  hundred  and 
twenty,  and  the  latter  only  ninety-six  pupils — contain  between  fifteen  and  six- 
teen thousand  cubic  feet  of  atmospheric  air.  The  rooms  for  the  grammar 
schools,  intended  to  accommodate  two  hundred  pupils,  contain  over  thirty-five 
thousand  cubic  feet,  after  a  suitable  deduction  for  the  furniture  is  made. 

This  estimate  allows  every  child,  when  the  rooms  are  not  crowded,  about 
one  hundred  and  fifty  cubic  feet  of  air  for  every  hour  and  a  half,  on  the  sup- 
position that  no  change  takes  place,  except  at  the  times  of  recess,  and  at  the 
close  of  each  session.  But  the  rate  at  which  warm  air  is  constantly  coming 
into  the  rooms  from  the  furnaces,  increases  the  allowance  for  every  child  to 
about  three  hundred  cubic  feet  for  every  hour  and  a  half. 


n  n  n 


n  rrn 


r- 


H  t__J 

So.  13. — Transverse  Section  of  a  Grammar  School-House. 


154  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

The  preceding  cut  is  given  in  order  to  show  an  end  view,  the  projection,  belfry, 
rooms,  seats,  desks,  and  cellar.  An  imperfect  section  of  the  warming  appa- 
ratus is  presented,  giving  an  outline  of  the  plan  of  its  construction.  The 
smoke-pipe,  connected  with  [a],  the  heater,  coiled  twice  around  in  the  air- 
chamber,  passes  off  in  the  direction  of  [b,  b]  to  the  chimney.  The  short  tin 
pipes  [c,  c]  conduct  the  warm  air  into  the  lower  rooms ;  and  the  long  ones 
[e,  e]  convey  it  to  the  rooms  in  the  second  story.  On  each  side  of  the  projec- 
tion over  the  door  [d]  is  a  window,  lighting  thi  outside  entry,  and  also  the 
middle  entry  by  another  window  over  the  inside  door.  The  end  views  of  seats 
and  desks  do  not  represent  the  different  sizes  very  accurately,  but  sufficiently 
so  to  give  a  correct  idea  of  the  general  plan. 


THE  HIGH  SCHOOL-HOUSE. 

This  building  occupies  an  elevated  and  beautiful  situation,  at  the  head  of 
President  street,  near  the  central  part  of  the  city.  It  is  a  specimen  of  plain, 
but  tasteful  architecture,  on  which  the  eye  reposes  with  pleasure.  The  lot, 
somewhat  irregular  in  its  form,  is  equivalent  to  one  a  hundred  feet  by  a  hun- 
dred and  fifteen,  and  lies  on  a  gentle  hill-side,  rendering  it  easy  to  construct  a 
basement  almost  entirely  above  ground,  except  on  the  back  side.  The  exten- 
sive grounds  in  front,  and  on  either  side,  all  planted  with  trees,  and  separated 
from  the  High  School  only  by  the  width  of  the  streets,  add  much  to  the  beauty 
and  pleasantness  of  its  situation.  The  yards  around  it  are  inclosed  bv  a 
handsome  baluster  fence,  resting  in  front  on  heavy  blocks  of  rough  granite. 
The  steps  are  of  hewn  granite,  twelve  feet  long,  making  a  very  convenient 
entrance. 

The  High  School  being  designed  for  both  boys  and  girls,  an  entirely  separate 
entrance  is  provided  for  each  department.  The  front  door,  at  which  the  girls 
enter,  has  a  very  beautiful  frontispiece,  with  double  columns  (thus  providing 
for  large  side-lights),  and  a  heavy  ornamented  cap,  all  cut  from  Giuincy  granite 
in  the  best  style. 

The  door  in  the  circular  projection,  fronting  on  another  street,  has  also  a 
fine  frontispiece,  cut  from  Gluincy  granite. 

The  size  of  this  building  is  fifty  feet  by  seventy-six,  with  a  projection  of 
seven  feet.  The  walls  of  the  basement  are  of  stone,  three  feet  thick,  and  faced 
with  rough-hewn  granite,  laid  in  courses  twenty  inches  wide.  Each  stone  has 
a  "  chiseled  draft,  fine  cut,"  an  inch  wide  around  the  face,  and  all  the  joints 
as  close  and  true  as  if  the  whole  were  fine  hammered.  The  remaining  por- 
tions of  the  walls,  diminishing  in  thickness  as  they  rise,  are  faced  with  the 
best  quality  of  Danvers  pressed  brick,  giving  the  building  a  beautiful  appear- 
ance. The  roof  is  covered  with  tin,  every  joint  soldered,  and  the  whole  sur- 
face kept  well  painted. 

The  rooms  in  the  basement  story,  which  is  twelve  feet  high  in  the  clear,  are 
separated  from  each  other  by  solid  brick  walls.  The  pupils  in  the  girls'  de- 
partment, entering  the  house  at  [A],  pass  into  the  large  lobby  [C],  twelve  feet 
by  twenty -eight,  from  which  they  can  go  to  all  parts  of  the  building  appro- 
priated to  their  use. 

The  furnace-room  [H]  has  a  brick  floor,  and  is  kept  in  as  good  order  as  the 
olher  parts  of  the  house.  The  coal-bins  [n,  ii]  and  the  furnace  [F]  are  so  con- 
structed, that,  with  an  ordinary  degree  of  care,  the  room  may  be  kept  as  clean 
as  any  of  the  school-rooms.  The  arrangements  [m,  m~]  for  setting  up  um- 
brellas have  been  described.  The  pump  [p],  accessible  to  all  in  the  girls' 
department,  connected  with  a  nice  sink,  lined  with  lead,  affords  an  abundant 
supply  of  excellent  water.  The  rooms  [E,  G,  I],  each  not  far  from  sixteen  by 
twenty-four  feet,  are  appropriated  as  the  Superintendent's  Office,  and  for  such 
meetings  of  the  School  Committee,  and  of  its  sub-committees,  as  may  be  ap- 
pointed there. 

The  large  lecture-room,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  lobby,  is  furnished  with 
settees,  which  will  accommodate  about  two  hundred  and  fifty  pupils.  On  the 


156 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


-•:•:•      .:;    .     . 


No.  15. — Plan  of  the  Basement  of  High  School. 

platform  [P],  raised  seven  inches  from  the  floor,  a  long  table  or  counter  (d]t 
made  convenient  for  experimental  lectures  in  Chemistry,  Natural  Philosophy, 
&c.,  having  pneumatic  cisterns  for  holding  gasses.  At  [F,  &c.]  are  suitable 
provisions  for  the  fires  used  in  the  preparations  of  chemical  experiments. 
The  pump  [p],  with  a  sink  like  the  other,  is  used  exclusively  by  the  pupils  in 
the  boys'  department. 

In  all  lectures,  and  other  exercises  in  this  room,  the  girls,  entering  at  [a], 
occupy  the  seats  on  the  right  of  [D],  the  middle  aisle.  The  boys,  entering  by 
descending  the  short  flight  of  stairs  [£],  are  seated  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
room.  This  may  seem  like  descending  to  useless  particulars,  but  it  is  done  to 
show  that  there  are  no  grounds  for  the  objections  sometimes  made  against 
having  a  school  for  boys  and  for  girls  in  the  same  building,  where  the  depart- 
ments are  kept  entirely  separate,  except  in  exercises  in  vocal  music  and  occa- 
sional lectures.  The  boys  enter  the  house  at  the  end  door  [B],  which  is  six 
feet  above  the  basement  floor,  and,  by  a  short  flight  of  stairs,  they  reach  the 
first  story  at  [e~\. 

The  three  rooms  [C,  D,  F]  are  appropriated  to  the  department  for  girls. 
They  are  easy  of  access  to  the  pupils,  who,  ascending  the  broad  flight  of 
stairs,  terminating  at  [B],  can  pass  readily  into  their  respective  rooms. 

The  course  of  instruction  in  the  school  occupying  three  years,  the  room  [D] 
is  appropriated  to  the  studies  for  the  first,  [E]  to  those  of  the  second,  and 
[F]  to  the  course  for  the  third  year.  In  each  room  there  are  three  sizes  of 
seats  and  desks,  and  their  arrangement  in  all  is  uniform.  The  largest  are  on 
the  back  side  of  the  room.  The  largest  desks  are  four  feet  eight  inches  long, 
and  twenty-two  inches  wide  on  the  top;  the  middle  size  is  two  inches  smaller, 
and  the  other  is  reduced  in  the  same  proportions.  The  largest  seats  are  as 
high  as  common  chairs,  about  seventeen  inches,  and  the  remaining  sizes  are 
reduced  to  correspond  with  the  desks.  The  passages  around  the  sides  of  the 
rooms  vary  from  two  to  four  feet  wide,  and  those  between  the  rows  of  desks, 
from  eighteen  to  twenty-four  inches. 

On  the  raised  platforms  [P,  P,  P,  P]  are  the  teachers'  tables  [d,d,d,d]t 
covered  with  dark  woolen  cloth,  and  furnished  with  four  drawers  each.  The 
registers  [/,/,/,/]  admit  the  warm  air  from  the  furnace,  and  the  pipes  [p,p,  p~] 
conduct  it  into"  the  rooms  in  the  upper  story.  The  passage  [i]  leads  into  the 
back  yard,  which  is  ornamented  with  a  variety  of  shrubbery. 


HIGH  SCHOOL  HOUSE,  PROVIDENCE. 


157 


No.  1C.— Plan  of  the  First  Story  of  the  High  School. 


The  door  leading  from  the  room  [F]  i?  used  only  for  teachers  and  visitors, 
except  when  the  two  departments  assemble  in  the  hall. 

In  the  room  [C]  the  boys  pursue  the  studies  prescribed  for  the  first  year; 
the  other  rooms  in  this  department  are  ia  the  next  story. 

Pupils  ascending  from  the  area  [«],  by  two  circular  stairways,  land  on  the 
broad  space  [0,c],  from  which,  by  a  short  flight  of  stairs,  they  reach  [A],  in 
the  following  cut,  the  floor  of  the  upper  story,  which  is  sixteen  feet  in  the  clear. 


CT 

w 


O  O   O  O  O  O  00 

o  o  c  o  o  oo  oo 

GO   oo  oo  oo 

00   00  00  00 


No.  17.— Plan  of  the  Second  Story  of  the  High  School-House 


158 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


The  room  [B]  is  appropriated  to  the  middle  class,  and  [C]  to  the  senior 
class.     The  arrangement  of  the  seats  and  desks  are 
the  same  as  in  the  other  rooms,  except  they  are 
'movable — being  screwed  to  a  frame  not  fastened  to 
the  floor,  as  shown  in  this  cut. 

The  cross  partition  [a]— see  cut  No.  17— is  com- 
posed of  four  very  large  doors,  about  fourteen  feet 
square,  hung  with  weights  in  such  a  manner  that 
they  may  be  raised  into  the  attic,  thus  throwing  the  whole  upper  story  into  one 
large  hall— an  arrangement  by  which  one  room  can  be  changed  into  three,  and 
three  into  one,  as  the  occasion  may  require.  On  all  public  occasions,  such  as 
Quarterly  Examinations,  and  Annual  Exhibitions,  the  rooms  are  thus  thrown 
together,  and  the  seats  and  desks  turned  so  as  to  face  the  platform  [P],  in 
[E],  the  principal  hall. 

Observation  and  experiment,  relative  to  the  modes  of  warming  the  public 
school-rooms,  have  proved  that  very  large  stoves,  eighteen  inches  in  diameter, 
render  the  temperature  of  the  rooms  more  uniform  and  pleasant,  and  that  they 
are  also  more  economical,  both  in  regard  to  the  amount  of  fuel  consumed,  and 
the  amount  of  repairs  required.  It  is  a  general  principle,  that  a  warming 
apparatus,  containing  a  large  quantity  of  fuel,  undergoing  a  slow  combustion, 
is  better  than  one  containing  a  small  quantity  of  fuel,  in  a  state  of  rapid  com- 
bustion. The  stoves  in  the  small  buildings,  and  the  furnaces  in  the  large 
ones,  are  constructed  on  this  principle. 

In  regard  to  the  construction  of  furnaces  for  warming  public  buildings  or 
private  dwellings,  so  much  depends  upon  circumstances,  that  no  specific  plan 
can  be  given  which  would  be  successful  in  all  cases.  One  familiar  with  the 
principles  which  regulate  the  motions  of  currents  of  air  at  different  tempera- 
tures, can,  with  an  ordinary  degree  of  good  judgment  and  mechanical  skill, 
make  a  furnace  in  any  place,  where  one  can  be  made  at  all,  that  will  accom- 
plish all  which  the  laws  of  nature  will  permit. 

The  following  cut  is  intended  to  illustrate  two  plans  for  a  furnace. 


No.  18. — A  Vertical  Section  of  a  Furnace 


In  the  first,  the  cold  air  is  admitted  at  [a],  through  the  outside  walls  of  the 
building,  and  descends  in  the  direction  described  by  the  arrows,  to  [r],  and 
thence  rises  to  the  top  of  the  furnace,  as  shown  by  the  arrows.  At  this  place, 
the  cold  air  diffuses  itself  over  the  whole  upper  surface,  about  eight  feet  by 
ten,  and  passes  down  between  the  double  walls  of  the  furnace,  in  the  spaces 
[t,  t],  which  extend  all  around  the  furnace,  and  rises  from  beneath,  through  a 


HIGH  SCHOOL-HOUSE,  PROVIDENCE.  159 

large  opening  [A],  into  the  air-chamber,  where  it  is  heated  and  conducted  to 
the  rooms  by  large  pipes,  [/,  Ji\.  The  object  of  this  mode  of  taking  in  air  is 
two-fold.  In  the  first  place,  the  constant  currents  of  cold  air,  passing  over  the 
top  of  the  furnace,  keep  that  surface  comparatively  cool,  and  also  keep  the 
floors  above  the  furnace  cool,  thus  removing  all  danger  of  setting  fire  to  the 
wood-work  over  the  furnace. 

In  the  second  place,  as  the  inside  walls  are  constantly  becoming  heated, 
and  the  currents  of  cold  air,  passing  down  on  all  sides  of  the  walls,  become 
ranfied  by  their  radiation,  and  thus,  as  it  were,  take  the  heat  from  the  outside 
of  the  inner  walls,  and  bring  it  round  into  the  air-chamber  again,  at  [£].  This 
is  not  mere  theory,  but  has  been  found  to  work  well  in  practice.  On  this 
plan,  the  outside  walls  are  kept  so  cool,  that  very  little  heat  is  wasted  by 
radiation. 

In  the  second  plan,  the  cold  air  is  admitted  as  before;  but,  instead  of 
ascending  from  [r]  to  the  top  of  the  furnace,  it  passes  through 


directly  from  [r],  to  [p,p,p],  representing  small  piers,  supporting  the  insi( 
walls,  and  thence  into  the  air-chamber  at  [£],  and  also  up  the  spaces  [t,  £],  to 
the  top  [5],  from  which  the  air  warmed  by  coming  up  between  the  walls  is 
taken  into  the  rooms  by  separate  registers,  or  is  let  into  the  sides  of  the 
pipes  [/,*]. 

By  this  plan,  the  air  passes  more  rapidly  through  the  air-chamber,  and  enters 
the  rooms  in  larger  quantities,  but  at  a  lower  temperature.  This  is  the  better 
mode,  if  the  furnace  be  properly  constructed  with  large  inlets  and  outlets  for 
air,  so  that  no  parts  become  highly  heated ;  otherwise,  the  wood- work  over  the 
furnace  will  be  in  some  danger  of  taking  fire.  The  general  defects  in  the 
construction  of  furnaces  are : — too  small  openings  for  the  admission  of  cold 
air — too  small  pipes  for  conveying  the  warm  air  in  all  horizontal  and  inclined 
directions — and  defective  dampers  in  the  perpendicular  pipes.  A  frequent 
cause  of  failure  in  warming  public  buildings  and  private  dwellings  may  be 
found  in  the  ignorance  and  negligence  of  attendants. 

A  single  remark  will  close  this  report,  which  has  been  extended,  perhaps 
too  far  by  specific  details — a  want  of  which  is  often  complained  of  by  me- 
chanics who  are  engaged  in  building  school-houses. 

It  is  believed  to  be  best,  and,  all  things  considered,  cheapest,  in  the  end,  tc 
build  very  good  school-houses — to  make  their  external  appearance  pleasan  > 
and  attractive,  and  their  internal  arrangements  comfortable  and  convenient- 
to  keep  them  in  first-rate  order,  well  repaired,  and  always  clean. 

The  amount  of  damage  done  to  school  property  in  this  city  has  uniformlj 
been  least  in  those  houses  in  Mjhich  the  teachers  have  done  most  to  keep  every 
thing  in  very  good  order.  The  very  appearance  of  school  property  well  taker 
care  of  rebukes  the  spirit  of  mischief,  and  thus  elevates  the  taste  and  char 
acter  of  the  pupils. 

Respectfully  submitted. 

N.  BISHOP, 
Superintendent  of  Public  Schools. 

PROVIDENCE,  August,  1846. 


160 


ARSENAL  DISTRICT-SCHOOL-IIOUSE 


PLAN  OF  DISTRICT  SCHOOL-HOUSE  IN  HARTFORD,  CONN 

Fiff.  1. 


The  above  cut  represents  the  front  elevation  of  a  new  school-house  erected 
in  Arsenal  District,  in  Hartford,  after  designs  by  Octavius  Jordan,  Architect. 
As  originally  planned  there  were  to  be  two  rooms,  as  shown  in  side  elevation, 
(Fig.  3.)  The  largest  (Fig.  2)  room  is  forty-five  feet  long  by  twenty-five 
wide,  with  a  recitation-room  (C)  fourteen  feet  by  twelve,  and  two  entries,  one 
for  boys  (A)  and  one  for  girls,  (B),  each  twelve  feet  by  six,  furnished  with  sink, 
nooks,  &c.  There  are  thirty-two  desks,  each  for  two  pupils,  with  sixty-four 
chairs,  (page  141,  Fig.  2),  and  thirty-two  chairs  for  young  children,  (Fig.  3, 
page  30.)  The  room  is  warmed  by  Mott's  School  Stove,  (page  146,)  and  ven- 
tilated by  flues  in  the  walls,  opening  at  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  room,  which 
is  fifteen  feet  high  in  the  clear.  The  material  is  brick,  and  the  cost  $1800. 


Fig.  2.    GROUND  PLAN. 


n    n   n 
n    n    n 


n    n    n   n 
n    n    D    D 


n  n 

n  n 

n  n 

a  a 


n    D 
a    n 


o    o    o 
o    o    o 


nn?non°nononono[T 

.  °  |J0LJcLloIJoU0Uo|JoLlc 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


161 


Fig.  3.    SIDE  ELEVATION. 


PLAN  OF  SOUTH  DISTRICT  SCHOOL-HOUSE. 


163 


PLANS  OF  THE  SOUTH  DISTRICT  SCHOOL-HOUSE  IN  THE  CITY  OP 
HARTFORD. 

The  house,  illustrated  in  Figs.  1,  2,  3,4,  5,  and  6,  was  erected  in  1851,  after 
plans  by  E.  I).  Tiffany,  Esq..  at  an  expense,  including  lot,  inclosure,  building,  and 
furniture,  of  $13,000.  The  location  is  both  central  and  retired,  on  the  east  side  of 
Wadsworth  street,  having  a  front  of  320  feet,  and  depth  of  150,  and  is  rendered 
surpassingly  attractive  and  beautiful  by  a  number  of  fine  old  majestic  oaks  and 
graceful  elms.  The  building  is  of  brick,  70  feet  by  58,  exclusive  of  the  towers,  and 
Is  three  stories- high,  and  was  designed  to  accommodate  450  pupils — but  owing  to 
the  attraction  of  the  house  and  popularity  of  the  school,  provision  has  been  made 
in  it  for  500  pupils — classified  into  five  departments. 

FIG.  2.     PLAN  OF  FIRST  FLOOR. 


"a  a  aa  a 
a  aaa 
a  a  a  a 
a  a  a  a 
a  a  a  a 
a  aa  a 
a  a  a  a 
a  a  a  a 

a  aa  a 

a  a  a  a 
a  aa  a 

8888 

a  aaa 


OOODD 
DDDDD 
DODDD 
DDDDD 
DDDDD 
DDDOD 
DDDDD 
DDODD 


ODD 
DDDDD 
DDDDD 
DDDDD 


A — Girls'  entrance. 

B— Boys'        do. 

C— Primary  No.  1.     Seated  with  chairs.     (Fig.  5.) 

D — Primary  No.  2.     Seated  as  No.  1. 

E  E — Clothes  rooms  for  Upper  Department. 

F  F — Culver's  Furnaces  in  basement. 

G — Coal-room,  extending  under  Primary  No.  1. 

H — Girls'  passage  to  play  ground. 

S  S— Stairs. 

c — Clothes  room  for  boys. 

d — Clothes  room  for  girls. 

g — Stairs  to  Furnaces,  &c. 

tt — Teacher's  table. 

r — Registers  for  heated  air. 

v — Flues  for  ventilation  surmounted  by  Emerson's  Ejector. 


164 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


Fia.  3.    PLAN  OF  SECOND  FLOOR. 


NM  M 


c 


JLilLJLULLlLiJLlJlLllLlo 
EtDDClCIEIIDtDtDo 

EtDLaDcaDDtniDtno 
EQiaDnntnaino 


I — Primary  No.  3.     Seat  and  desk  for  two  pupils.     (Fig.  6.) 
K — Intermediate  School — seat  and  desk  for  one  pupil. 
i — Clothes  room  for  boys, 
k — Clothes  room  for  girls. 


FIG.  5.    PRIMARY  SCHOOL  CHAIR. 


PLAN  OF  SOUTH  DISTRICT  SCHOOL-HOUSE. 


165 


FIG.  4.     PLAN  OF  THIRD  FLOOR. 


M — Upper  Department,  seats  and  desks  for  two  pupils.    (Fig.  6.) 
L  L — Library  and  Apparatus. 


FIG.  6.    HARTFORD  SCHOOL  DESK. 


IQQ  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

PLANS  AND  DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  PUBLIC  HIGH  SCHOOL-HOUSE, 
HARTFORD,  CONN. 

The  Public  High  School-House  of  Hartford  was  built  after  more 
than  ordinary  search  for  the  best  plan,  (a  committee  having  visited 
Boston,  Lowell,  Salem,  Newburyport,  Worcester,  Providence,  and 
Middletown,  for  this  purpose,)  under  the  constant  oversight  of  a 
prudent,  practical  and  intelligent  building  committee,  and  with  due 
regard  to  a  wise  economy.  The  committee  were  limited  in  their 
expenditure  for  lot,  building,  and  fixtures,  to  $12,000  ;  and  when  it 
was  ascertained  that  a  suitable  building  could  not  be  constructed 
for  that  sum,  individuals  on  the  committee  immediately  contributed 
$2,400  out  of  their  own  pockets  to  complete  the  house  with  the 
latest  improvements.  The  committee  have  now  the  satisfaction  of 
knowing  that  their  contributions  and  personal  oversight  have  been 
mainly  instrumental  in  erecting  and  furnishing  the  most  complete 
structure  of  the  kind  in  New  England,  when  the  aggregate  cost  is 
taken  into  consideration. 

The  High  School  is  designed  for  both  males  and  females,  and  the  arrange- 
ments of  the  buildings,  and  the  grounds,  are  made  with  reference  to  the  separa- 
tion of  the  sexes,  so  far  as  this  is  desirable  in  the  same  school. 

The  lot  on  which  the  building  stands  is  at  the  corner  of  Asylum  and  Ann 
streets,  and  is  at  once  central,  and  large  enough  for  the  appropriate  yards.  The 
yards  are  separated  by  a  close  and  substantial  board  fence,  and  the  grounds  are 
well  laid  out  and  properly  inclosed;  they  will  also  soon  be  planted  with  trees 
and  shrubbery.  The  building  is  of  brick,  three  stories  high,  upon  a  firm  stone 
basement.  Its  dimensions  are  50  by  75  feet.  The  basement  is  13  feet  in  the 
clear,  six  feet  of  which  are  above  the  level  of  the  yard.  This  part  of  the  build- 
ing is  occupied  by  furnaces,  coal  bins,  sinks,  pumps,  entrance  rooms,  &c.  At  one 
end,  and  on  two  opposite  sides  of  the  building,  a  stair  case  eleven  feet  in  width 
extends  from  each  of  the  two  entrance  rooms,  to  the  upper  story,  with  spacious 
landings  on  the  first  and  second  floors.  Two  rooms,  each  11  by  14  feet,  are  be- 
tween the  stair  cases,  the  one  on  the  first  floor  being  used  for  a  front  entry  to  the 
building,  and  the  one  on  the  second  floor  being  appropriated  to  the  Library 
and  Apparatus.  Two  closets,  eleven  by  four  feet  on  the  first  floor,  and  imme- 
diately beneath  the  stair  cases,  receive  the  outer  garments,  umbrellas,  &c.,  ot 
the  teachers. 

An  aisle  of  four  feet  four  inches  in  width  extends  between  the  desks  and 
outer  walls  of  the  rooms,  and  between  every  two  ranges  of  desks  is  an  aisle  of 
two  feet  four  inches  in  width.  An  aisle  of  eight  feet  in  width  passes  through 
the  middle  of  the  rooms,  parallel  to  the  narrower  passages.  A  space  of  five 
feet  in  width  is  likewise  reserved  between  the  remote  seats  in  the  ranges  and 
the  partition  wall  of  the  rooms.  Around  the  sides  of  the  rooms,  tastefully  con- 
structed settees  are  placed  for  occasional  recitations,  and  for  the  accommodation 
of  visiters,  and  in  me  upper  room  for  the  use  of  the  pupils  of  the  room  below, 
during  the  opening  and  closing  exercises  of  the  school. 

The  pupils,  when  seated,  face  the  teachers'  desks  and  platforms,which  occupy 
the  space  between  the  entrance  doors  of  each  room. 

A  blackboard,  or  black  plaster  surface,  forty  feet  long,  and  five  broad,  ex- 
tends between  the  doors  leading  to  the  recitation  rooms,  which  are  also  lined 
with  a  continuous  blackboard.  There  is  also  a  blackboard  extending  the 
entire  length  of  the  teachers' platform  in  the  lower  room,  and  two  of  smaller  di- 
mensions in  the  room  above,  a  part  of  the  space  being  occupied  by  the  folding 
doors  leading  to  the  library  and  apparatus  room.  Twenty  chairs,'  of  small  di- 
mensions and  sixteen  inches  in  height,  are  placed  around  each  recitation  room, 
'hirteen  inches  apart  and  seven  inches  from  the  walls,  and  securely  fastened  to 
the  floor.  A  clock,  with  a  circular  gilt  frame  and  eighteen-inch  dial  plate,  is 


PUBLIC  HIGH  SCHOOL  HARTFORD.  167 

placed  over  the  teachers'  platform  in  each  school  room,  in  full  view  of  the  pupils. 
A  small  bell  is  also  placed  above  the  teachers'  platform  in  the  lower  room,  with 
a  wire  attached,  passing  to  the  desk  of  the  Principal,  in  the  room  above,  by 
which  the  time  of  recesses,  change  of  recitation  classes,  &c..-  are  signified  to 
the  members  of  the  lower  rooms. 

The  school-rooms  in  the  first  and  second  stories  are  50  feet  square,  and  13  feet 

in  height— to  each  of  which,  two  recitation  rooms  12  by  23  feet  are  attached. 

The  large  rooms  are  furnished  with  (i  Kimball's  improved  School  Chairs  and 

Desks,"  placed  in  six  ranges,  extending  back  from  the  teachers'  platforms,  ten 

esks  forming  a  range,  and  two  chairs  attached  to  each  desk,  furnishing  accom- 

odations  in  each  room  for  120  pupils— 60  of  either  sex.  Ample  room  yet 
emains  in  front  of  these  ranges  to  increase  the  number  of  desks  when  the 
war. is  of  the  school  demand  them.  The  desks  are  four  feet  in  length  and  one 
foot  four  inches  in  breadth,  constructed  of  cherry,  oiled  and  varnished.  The 
moderately  inclined  tops  are  fixed  to  the  end  supporters,  and  the  openings  for 
books  are  in  front  of  the  pupils.  Glass  inkstands  are  inserted  in  the  tops  of  the 
desks,  and  the  ink  protected  from  dust  and  the  action  of  the  atmosphere  by 
mahogany  covers  turning  on  pivots.  The  chairs  are  constructed  with  seats 
of  basswood,  hollowed,  and  backs  of  cherry,  moulded  both  to  add  beauty  to 
the  form  of  the  chair,  and  to  afford  support  and  comfort  to  the  occupants.  Ah 
are  neatly  stained  and  varnished,  and  they,  as  well  as  the  desks,  rest  on  iron 
supporters,  firmly  screwed  to  the  floor. 

The  entire  upper  story  is  converted  into  a  hall,  being  twelve  feet  in  height  at 
the  walls,  rising  thence  in  an  arch  to  the  height  of  seventeen  feet.  This  is  ap- 
propriated to  reading,  and  declamation,  and  for  the  female  department  of  the 
school,  todaily  recess,  and  calisthenic  exercises.  A  moderately  raised  platform 
is  located  at  one  end,  above  which  an  extended  blackboard  is  placed,  and  settees 
are  ranged  around  the  walls;  these,  properly  arranged,  together  with  the  settees 
from  the  lower  rooms,  which  are  easily  transported  above,  speedily  convert  the 
open  Hall  into  a  commodious  Lecture  room, — and  also  adapt  it  to  the  purposes 
of  public  examinations  and  exhibitions. 

In  each  of  the  two  entrance  rooms  are  placed  the  means  of  cleanliness  and 
comfort, — a  pump  of  the  most  approved  construction,  an  ample  sink,  two  wash 
basins  with  towels,  glass  drinking  tumblers,  and  a  looking-glass.  Ranges  oi 
hooks  for  hats,  coats,  bonnets,  cloaks,  &c.,  extend  around  the  rooms,  and  are 
numbered  to  correspond  with  the  number  of  pupils,  of  each  sex,  which  the 
capacity  of  the  house  will  accommodate.  In  the  girls'  room,  pairs  of  small 
iron  hooks  are  placed  directly  beneath  the  bonnet  hooks,  and  twelve  inches  from 
the  floor,  for  holding  the  over-shoes.  In  the  boys'  room,  boot-jacks  are  pro- 
vided to  facilitate  the  exchange  of  boots  for  slippers  when  they  enter  the  build- 
ing—an important  article,  and  of  which  no  one  in  this  department  of  the  school 
is  destitute.  A  thin  plank,  moderately  inclined  by  hollowing  the  upper  side,  is 
placed  upon  the  floor,  and  extends  around  the  walls  of  the  room,  to  receive  the 
boots  and  convey  the  melted  ice  and  snow  from  them,  by  a  pipe,  beneath  the 
floor.  A  large  umbrella  stand  is  furnished  in  each  of  the  two  entrance  rooms, 
also  with  pipes  for  conveying  away  the  water.  Stools  are  secured  to  the  floors 
for  convenience  in  exchanging  boots,  shoes,  &c.  Directly  under  the'stairs  is  an 
OMNIUM  GATHERUM — an  appropriate  vessel,  in  which  are  carefully  deposited 
shreds  of  paper,  and  whatever  comes  under  the  denomination  of  litter^  subject, 
of  course,  to  frequent  removal.  These  rooms,  in  common  with  the  others,  are 
carefully  warmed.  The  wainscoting  of  the  entrance  rooms,  and  the  stair  case, 
is  formed  of  narrow  boards,  grooved  and  tongued,  placed  perpendicularly,  and 
crowned  with  a  simple  moulding.  The  railing  of  the  stair  case  is  of  black 
walnut.  A  paneled  wainscoting  reaching  from  the  floor  to  the  base  of  the 
windows,  extends  around  the  walls  of  the  remaining  rooms.  All  the  wood 
work,  including  the  library  and  apparatus  cases,  is  neatly  painted,  oak-grained, 
and  varnished.  The  teachers'  tables  are  made  of  cherry,  eight  feet  in  length, 
and  two  feet  four  inches  in  breadth,  with  three  drawers  in  each,  and  are  sup- 
ported on  eight  legs.  A  movable  writing  desk  of  the  same  material  is-placed 
on  each.  Immediately  in  front  of  the  teachers'  desk  in  the  upper  room,  a  piar.o 
is  to  be  placed,  for  use  during  the  opening  and  closing  exercises  of  the  school, 
and  for  the  use  of  the  young  ladies  during  the  recesses.  Venetian  window 
blinds  with  rolling  slats,  are  placed  inside  the  windows,  and  being  of  a  slight 
buff  color,  they  modify  the  light  without  imparting  a  sombre  hue  to  the  room. 


108  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

The  building  is  warmed  throughout  by  two  of  Hanks'  Improved  Air  Heater, 
placed  in  the  basement. 

The  ventilation  of  the  school-rooms,  or  the  rapid  discharge  of  the  air  which 
has  become  impure  by  respiration,  is  most  thoroughly  secured  in  connection 
with  a  constant  influx  of  pure  warm  air  from  the  furnaces,  by  discharging  ven- 
tiducts or  tiues,  situated  on  each  side  of  the  building  at  the  part  of  the  rooms 
most  distant  from  the  registers  of  the  furnaces.  The  ventiducts  of  each  room 
are  eighteen  inches  in  diameter,  and  are  carried  from  the  floor  entirely  separate 
to  the  Stationary  Top,  or  Ejector  above  the  roof.  The  openings  into  the  ven- 
tiducts, both  at  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  room,  are  two  feet  square,  and  are 
governed  by  a  sliding  door  or  blind. 

A  flight  of  stone  steps  leads  to  the  front  and  main  entrance  of  the  building. 
The  architectural  entrance  is  of  simple  design,  fourteen  feet  in  width,  and 
twenty  feet  in  height.  All  the  parts  are  wrought  from  dark  colored  stone,  and 
on  the  crowning  stone  of  the  entablature,  PUBLIC  HIGH  SCHOOL,  appears  in 
plain  and  prominent  relief.  Large  folding  doors,  with  side  and  top  lights,  close 
the  entrance. 

A  side  knob  commands  a  bell  suspended  in  the  Library  Room,  directly  behind 
the  Principal. 

A  broad  stone  walk  reaches  from  the  steps  to  the  street ;  flagging  walks  also 
extend  from  the  street  to  the  side  entrances  of  the  building,  and  thence  to  the 
outbuildings. 

The  Library  contains  an  Encyclopedia,  the  most  approved  Dictionaries,  both 
Classical  and  English,  and  other  important  books  of  reference  for  the  use  of  the 
School,  together  with  selected  works  for  the  direct  professional  reading  of  the 
teachers. 

Several  educational  and  scientific  periodicals  are  furnished  to  the  School, 
and  which  at  the  end  of  each  year  will  form  additional  volumes  for  the  Libraiy. 

Pelton's  and  Olney's,  together  with  Mitchell's  new  series  of  outline  maps, 
published  by  J.  H.  Mather  &  Co.,  of  Hartford,  Ct.,  and  a  fourteen-inch  terres- 
trial globe,  aid  in  the  department  of  General  Geography. 

Mattison's  series  of  sixteen  astronomical  maps;  a  fourteen-inch  celestial 
globe ;  Vale's  improved  twenty-four-inch  celestial  globe  and  transparent  sphere ; 
a  magic  lantern,  with  sets  of  slides,  containing  thirty  accurate  telescopic  and 
astronomical  views;  a  reflecting  telescope  of  five  feet  focal  distance,  with 
magnifying  power  of  700,  and  Chamberlin's  best  Tellurium,  aid  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Astronomy. 

Historical  maps,  charts,  &c.,  an  Isothermal  chart,  and  set  of  large  drawings 
to  illustrate  the  anatomical  structure,  and  the  physiological  functions  of  the 
system,  will  be  procured. 

The  following  apparatus  has  already  been  procured  to  aid  in  illustrating  and 
demonstrating  in  the  studies  named  : 

MECHANICS. — Set  of  mechanical  powers,  arranged  in  a  mahogany  frame, 
comprising  three  levers,  each  sixteen  inches  long.  Five  sets  of  brass  pulleys 
strung  with  cord  and  properly  balanced.  Brass  weights  from  one  to  sixteen 
ounces.  Screw  and  lever  with  nut.  Screw  as  an  inclined  plane.  Ship  cap- 
stan. Wheel  and  axle.  Wedge  in  two  parts.  Inclined  plane,  with  carriage. 
Movable  fulcrum  and  lever,  for  combining  the  power  of  screw  and  lever. 
Machine  for  illustrating  the  centrifugal  and  centripetal  forces— thirteen  experi- 
irnentis. 

PNEUMATICS.— Air  Pump— frame  made  of  rose-wood  beautifully  polished- 
barrel  twelve  by  four  inches  inside;  large  plate,  stop-cock,  and  barometer  in 
vacuo,  and  worked  with  a  polished  steel  lever  four  feet  in  length,  $'85,00. 
Large  swelled,  <™pn-top  bell  glass.  Several  plain  bell  glasses  of  smaller 
dimensions.  Bell  glass  with  brass  cap  to  receive  stop-cock.  Connector,  sliding 
rod.  &cc.  Revolving  jet  in  vacuo.  Bursting  squares  and  wire  guard  for  same. 
Condensing  chamber  arid  condensing  gauge.  Artificial  fountain,  with  exterior 
and  interior  jets.  Sheet  rubber  bag  in  vacuo,  illustrating  the  rarefaction  o* 
confined  air  by  removing  the  pressure  of  the  external.  Mercury  tunnel  to  ex- 
hibit the  mercurial  shower,  porosity  of  wood,  pressure  of  the  air,  and  also  the 
luminous  shower.  Guinea  and  feather  tube.  Philosophical  water  hammer. 


PUl'LIC  HIGH  SCHOOL,  HARTFC  RD.  169 

Apparatus  illustrating  the  absurdity  of  suction,  or  the  necessity  of  atmospheric 
pressure  to  the  operation  of  the  lifting  pump.  Torricellian  barometer  improved. 
Bell  in  vacuo.  Apparatus  illustrating  the  buoyancy  of  air,  gas,  &c.  Weighing 
air  and  specific  gravity  apparatus.  Freezing  apparatus  with  thermometer. 
Condensing  syringe.  Cylindrical  open-top  bell  glasses,  three  sizes.  Hand  and 
bladder  glass,  to  illustrate  atmospheric  pressure.  Bladder  cap,  with  cap  and 
stop-cock.  Double  acting  exhauster  and  condenser.  Brass  hemispherical  caps 
with  handles,  stop-cock  and  stand.  Apparatus  to  illustrate  the  upward  pressure 
of  the  atmosphere.  Connecting  screws,  guard  screws,  sliding  rod,  with  pack- 
ing screws  and  binding  screws.  Flexible  hose  and  screw  connectors.  Hydro- 
gen bottle.  Lead  hose  for  conducting  gases.  Floating  bulbs  for  condensation. 
Sheet  rubber  and  sheet  rubber  bags.  Glass  bells  and  stems  for  freezing  appa- 
ratus. Pair  magnetic  swans.  Detonating  glass  tubes.  Wire  gauze,  to  illus- 
trate Davy's  safety  lamp. 

HYDROSTATICS.— Hydrostatic  bellows,  with  glass  and  brass  tubes,  glass  tun- 
nels, weights,  &c.  Pair  of  working  models  of  the  forcing  and  lifting  pump. 
Graduated  glass  jars  for  cubic  inches. 

ELECTRICITY.— Electrical  machine,  24  inch  plate,  $50,00.  Leyden  jar  of  four 
quarts.  Do.  do.  for  suspension  with  movable  rings  and  points.  Do.  do.  with 
sliding  discharger.  Electrometer  jar,  by  which  the  charge  may  be  measured, 
&e.  Electric  batteries  with  six  four-quart  jars.  Sliding,  directing  rod.  Spiral 
spotted  tube.  Jointed  discharger,  glass  handle.  Universal  discharger.  Insu- 
lating stand.  Electric  bells.  Wax  cylinder.  Thunder  house  with  fixtures. 
Gas  pistol.  Gas  generator  and platina igniter,  four  quarts.  Longhaired  man. 
Electric  float  wheel  and  point.  Abbe  Noloas'  globe.  Luminous  bell  glass. 
Electric  S.  Aurora  flask.  Electric  seasons  machine.  Elastic  rubber  ball. 
Ether  spoon.  Chamberlin's  cylindrical  gasometers,  for  oxygen  and  hydrogen, 
united,  forming  a  compound  blow  pipe,  $60,00.  Iron  retort  for  oxygen  gas. 
Metallic  reflectors  with  stand,  iron  ball  and  stands  and  a  thermometer.  Glass 
spirit  lamp.  Spirit  boiler  to  use  with  reflectors.  Dropping  tube.  Glass  tun- 
nels. Graduated  glass  hydrometer.  Flask  with  screw-cap  admitting  thermom- 
eter. Platina  and  copper  pendant  spoons.  Brass  pipe  for  blowing  gas  bubbles. 
Hydrogen  gas  generator,  with  platina  sponge  for  lighting  a  long  detonating  jet. 
Lamp  stand.  Flexible  hose  for  transferring  and  conducting  gases.  Scales  and 
weights  for  chemical  purposes.  Pyrometer  wilh  two  lamps  and  rods.  Section 
model  of  the  high  pressure  engine/ 

GALVANIC  MAGNETIC  AND  ELECTRO  MAGNETIC. — Davis's  cylindric  battery. 
Steel  U  magnet  and  armature.  Magnetic  needles  and  stands.  Electro  mag- 
net. Electro  coil  and  hemispheric  magnets.  Terrestrial  helix.  Primary  coil 
and  handles  for  shocks.  Separable  helics  for  analysis  of  shocks. 

OPTICS.— Models  of  the  human  eye  in  three  parts.  Fig.  1st.  A  dissectible 
eye  four  inches  in  diameter,  showing  the  cornea,  iris,  ciliary  process,  choroid 
tunic,  crystalline  lens,  vitreous  hi.mor,  retina,  black  pigment,  optic  nerve,  &c. 
Fig.^d.  Showing  the  eye  in  its  socket,  with  the  muscles.  Fig.  3d.  The  eye 
with  rays  of  light  passing  from  an  object  and  forming  the  image  on  the  retina. 
The  object  and  the  image  movable,  showing  the  cause  of  lens  light,  short  sight, 
ind  perfect  sight. 

An  oxy-hydrogen  microscope  will  soon  be  added  in  this  department. 

With  the  above  apparatus  more  than  eight  hundred  experiments  can  be  per- 
formed. 

For  the  purpose  of  teaching  practical  surveying,  and  the  elements  of  en- 
gineering, a  Theodolite,  of  approved  English  manufacture,  is  provided.  Cos; 
§300. 

Other  apparatus  will  from  time  to  time  be  added,  as  the  wants  of  the  School 
may  require. 

Building  Committee. — A.  M.  COLLINS,  D.  F.  ROBINSON,  T.  EELKNAP,  J.  M, 
BUNCE,  W.  PEASE,  Jr.,  EDWARD  BUTTON,  E.  D.  TIFFANY. 


PUBLIC  HIGH  SCHOOL,  HARTFORD. 
Fig.  2— GROUND  PLAN,  YARD,  BASEMENT,  &c. 


171 


A— Front  yard. 

B— Girls'  yard. 

C— Boys'  yard. 

D— Door. 

E — Boys'  entrance  rooms. 

G — Girls'  entrance  rooms. 

F— Furnace. 

S— Stairs. 

W— Windows. 

P— Privies,  with  screen,  doors,  lie. 

X — Gates. 


a — Cold  air  ducts. 

b — Warm  air  ducts. 

c — Foul  air  ducts  or  ventilating  flues. 

d — Smoke  pipe. 

e — Pump,  sink. 

f — Umbrella  stand. 

g — Hollowed  plank  to    receive    wet 

boots,  overshoes,  &c. 
o — Bins  for  hard  coal,  charcoal,  &C, 
j— Close  board  fence. 


172 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 
Fig.  3— PLAN  OF  FIRST  FLOOR. 


A — Front  entrance. 
B — Girls'  entrance. 
C — Boys'  entrance. 
I— Centre  aisle,  eight  feet. 

L — Aisle  between  each  range  of  seats  and  desks,  two  feet  four  inches. 
K — Side  aisle,  four  feet  four  inches. 
M— Space  five  feet  wide. 
T — Teachers'  platform  and  desk. 

R — Recitation   rooms,   each   twenty-three  feet  by  twelve,  furnished  with 
twenty  chairs,  seven  inches  from  the  wall  and  thirteen  inches  apart. 
Q. — Library  and  apparatus,  from  eleven  feet  by  fourteen  feet. 
N — KimbalPs  desk  and  two  chairs. 
O— Piano. 

r — Hot  air  registers, 
c— Ventilating  flue  or  foul  air  duct.    N— Settees. 


Fig.  4— PLAN  OF  SECOND  FLOOR. 


PUBLIC  HIGH  SCHOOL,  HARTFORD.  173 

Figs.  5  and  6.    PLANS  BXHIBITINS  MODB  OP  VBNTILATIOX. 


Fig.  5.  Transverse  section  exhibiting  the  manner  in  which  the  ventiducts  or 
hot  air  flues  are  carried  up  on  the  inside  of  the  walls,  under  the  roof,  till  they 
discharge  into  the  Stationary  Top  or  Ejector. 

Fig.  G.  Lateral  section  of  the  ventiducts  or  foul  air  flues,  showing  the  man- 
ner in  which  the  flues  are  packed  together  and  carried  up  separately  from  the 
floor  of  each  room  until  they  discharge  into  the  common  Ejector.  The  cut  does 
not  represent  properly  the  manner  in  which  the  flues  are  carried  under  and  out 
of  the  roof. 


Fig.  3. 


Fig.  2. 

Each  desk  is  fitted  up 
with  a  glass  ink-well 
(Fig.  2.)  set  firmly  into 
the  desk,  and  covered 
with  alid.  The  ink-well 
may  be  set  into  a  cast 
iron  box  (Fig.  3,)  having 
a  cover  ;  the  box  being 
let  in  and  screwed  to 
the  desk,  and  the  ink- well  being  removable  for 
convenience  in  filling,  cleaning,  and  emptying 
in  cold  weather. 


1  74  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

PUBLIC  SCHOOLS  IN  BOSTON. 

The  system  of  public  schools  in  Boston  originated  in  a  vote  of  the  town, 
in  1642,  by  which  "  Brother  Philemon  Purmont  was  entreated  to  be- 
come school-master  for  the  teaching  and  nurturing  of  children  with  us," 
and  the  first  records  of  the  town  contain  a  sum  voted  for  the  "  maintenance 
of  a  free  school-master."  By  the  Act  of  the  General  Court  passed  1647, 
"  to  the  end  that  learning  should  not  be  buried  in  the  graves  of  our  fore- 
fathers," every  town  having  one  hundred  householders  was  required  to 
maintain  a  "  free  grammar  school ;  the  master  whereof  being  able  to  in- 
struct youth  so  far  as  they  may  be  fitted  for  the  university."  In  that 
year  the  present  Latin  School  was  founded,  but  was  known  as  the  Gram- 
mar School  till  1713,  when  it  took  the  name  of  the  South  Latin  School, — a 
new  Grammar  school  having  been  established  in  that  year,  called  the 
North  Latin  School,  arid  now  known  as  the  Eliot  school. 

In  1684,  a  class  of  free  schools  called  writing  schools  were  founded,  to 
teach  children  to  "  read  and  write."  Of  this  class  there  were  four  in  1785. 

In  1789,  the  schools  were  remodeled.  One  (the  North)  of  the  Latin 
Schools  were  discontinued,  and  "reading  schools"  (now  known  as  depart- 
ments under  the  Grammar  master)  were  established  in  separate  depart- 
ments from  the  "writing  schools;"  and  the  whole  placed  under  the 
direction  of  a  School  Committee  chosen  annually  by  the  town.  Previous 
to  this,  the  schools  were  under  the  inspection  of  the  Selectmen,  "and  of 
such  gentlemen  of  liberal  education,  together  with  the  reverend  minis- 
ters" as  should  be  appointed  for  the  purpose. 

In  1812,  a  separate  school  for  colored  children  was  established,  and 
called  the  Smith  School. 

In  1818,  the  School  Committee  were  instructed  by  a  vote  of  the  town 
to  appoint  three  persons  from  each  ward,  whose  duty  it  was  made  collec- 
tively, to  provide  instruction*  for  children  between  the  ages  of  four  and 
seven  years,  out  of  the  sum  of  $5000,  appropriated  for  the  purpose  for 
that  year.  This  was  the  origin  of  the  Primary  Schools  of  Boston,  and  of 
this  class  of  schools  in  this  country.  Previous  to  this  date,  no  child  could 
be  sent  to  the  Grammar  schools,  until  he  could  read  the  English  language. 

In  1821  the  English  High  School  for  boys  was  begun,  and  its  success 
was  such,  as  to  lead  to  the  establishment  in  1825  of  the  High  School  for 
girls.  This  last  school  was  discontinued  in  a  few  years.  Its  place  is  in 
part  supplied  by  allowing  the  girls  to  remain  two  years  longer  than  the 
boys  in  the  Grammar  school.  But  the  fact  that  near  two-thirds  of  all  the 
scholars  in  the  private  schools  are  females,  shows  that  there  is  a  defi- 
ciency in  the  system  of  public  schools  in  reference  to  female  education. 

In  1828  ten  schools,  one  in  each  primary  district,  were  designated  to 
receive  children  who  were  over  seven  years,  and  were  not  prepared  for 
the  Grammar  schools. 

In  1851,  after  repeated  recommendations  of  the  School  Commitee, 
the  City  Council  authorized  that  body  to  elect  a  Superintendent  of  Pub- 
lic Schools,  whose  duty  it  is  made. — "  to  study  the  school  system,  and  the 
condition  of  the  schools;"  "to  keep  himself  acquainted  with  the  progess 
of  instruction  and  discipline  in  other  places,  in  order  to  suggest  appropri- 
ate means  for  the  advancement  of  Public  Schools  in  this  city;"  "  to  ex- 
amine the  schools  semi-annually.  and  report  to  the  Board  respecting 
them;"  "to  consult  with  the  different  bodies,  who  have  control  of  the 
building  and  altering  school-houses,  and  with  all  those  through  whom, 
either  directly  or  indirectly,  the  school  money  is  expended,  that  there 
may  result  more  uniformity  in  their  plans,  and  more  economy  in  their 
expenditures."  To  this  office  Nathan  Bishop.  Esq.,  was  elected  in  May, 
1851,  and  has  already  signalized  his  administration  by  suggesting  many 
practical  improvements  which  have  been  adopted  by  the  committee. 


PUBLIC  SCHOOLS  IN  BOSTON.  J^  5 

All  of  the  Public  Schools  of  the  city  are  under  the  care  and  superin- 
tendence of  a  Board  or  Committee,  consisting  of  the  Mayor,  the  Presi- 
dent of  Common  Council,  and  twenty-four  other  persons,  annually 
elected,  two  for  each  ward. 

The  Board  employs  a  Superintendent,  to  act  under  their  control  and 
direction,  at  a  salary  of  twenty-five  hundred  dollars;  a  Primary  School 
Committee,  to  take  particula/charge  of  the  Primary  Schools;  a  commit- 
tee of  five  members  on  the  Latin  and  English  High  School;  a  com- 
mittee of  three  members  on  each  Grammar  School,  and  a  committee  on 
pchool-houses,  also  of  three  members.  The  teachers  are  elected  an- 
nually hy  the  Board,  and  their  salaries  are  fixed  for  the  year. 

The  system  now  (1851)  embraces  196  Primary  Schools.  22  Grammar 
Schools.  1  English  High  School,  1  Latin  School,  and  1  Normal  School. 

The  Primary  Schools  were  instituted  in  1818.  and  now  include  about 
12.000  children,  over  4  and  under  8  years  of  age,  under  female  teachers. 
In  these  schools,  the  alphabet,  pronouncing  and  spelling  words,  numera- 
tion and  combination  of  numbers,  the  stops  and  marks,  mental  arith- 
metic. and  reading  are  attended  to.  The  cost  of  these  schools,  in  1853,  for 
the  salaries  of  teachers,  was  $62.508.82.  or  $5.45  per  scholar  ;  for  inci- 
dental expenses.  822231.46,  or  $1.85  per  scholar;  or  $7.30  per  scholar, 
exclusive  of  expenditures  for  school-  houses. 

There  are  at  present  22  Grammar  Schools,  (including  three  independ- 
ent schools  in  the  same  building,  and  bearing  the  same  name  with  other 
schools.)  with  10.237  scholars.  These  schools  are  not  at  present  organ- 
ized on  a  uniform  plan;  but  efforts  are  making  to  constitute  each  Gram- 
mar School  of  about  700  to  800  children,  divided  into  twelve  or  thirteen 
equal  divisions,  of  about  sixty  pupils  each,  and  each  division  into  four 
large  classes.  Each  school  is  to  be  under  the  charge  of  one  principal 
teacher,  with  a  requsite  number  of  assistants,  one  to  each  room.  The 
course  of  instruction  embraces  the  common  branches  of  an  English  edu- 
cation. In  these  schools  the  boys  remain  until  they  are  15  years  of  age, 
or  until  they  pass  to  the  English,  High,  or  Latin  School.  Girls  can 
remain  till  they  are  seventeen.  In  1852-3.  the  cost  of  the  Grammar 
Schools,  for  salaries  and  teachers,  was  $130.531.18,  or  $12.63  per 
scholar;  $35  849.82  for  incidental  expenses  ;  or  $3.47  per  scholar;  or 
$16.10  per  scholar,  exclusive  of  the  expenditures  on  school-houses. 

The  English  High  School,  was  instituted  in  1821,  and  receives  pupils 
who  can  pass  a  strict  examination  in  spelling,  reading,  writing,  arith- 
metic. English  grammar,  modern  geography,  and  the  history  of  the  United 
States.  The  course  of  study  embraces  three  years,  and  the  privilege 
of  remaining  one  year  longer"!  It  embraces  ancient  geography,  general 
history,  algebra,  book-keeping,  rhetoric,  moral  philosophy,  natural  theol- 
ogy. evidences  of  Christianity,  political  economy,  drawing,  English  lan- 
guage, and  literature.  French  and  Spanish  languages,  astronomy,  higher 
mathematics,  and  their  applications  to  surveying,  engineering.  &c. 

The  Latin  School  was  instituted  in  1635.  and  receives  boys  who  have 
attained  the  age  of  ten  years,  and  takes  them  through  a  course  of  studies 


occupyng  sx  years,  preparatory  to  entering  the  most   respectable  col- 
lee.    It  includes  the  English,  as  well  as  the  Latin  and  Greek  languages. 
The  Normal  School  was  instituted  in  1852,  with  the  design  of  furnishing 


to  those  pupils  who  have  passed  through  the  usual  course  of  study  at  the 
grammar  schools  for  girls,  and  other  girls'  schools  in  the  city,  an  opportu- 
nity of  qualifying  themselves  in  the  best  manner  for  the  duties  of  teachers. 
Candidates  must  be  over  16.  and  not  more  than  19  years  of  age.  The 
school  embraces  two  departments — one  consisting  of  pupils  preparing 
themselves  to  be  teachers,  and  the  other  a  modef  school,  composed  oi 
children  of  the  age  and  qualification  of  pupils  in  the  fourth  classes  of 
the  Grammar  Schools.  The  course  of  study  embraces  two  years. 


176  SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 

PLANS  AND  DESCRIPTION  OF  A  PRIMARY  SCHOOL-HOUSE,  BOSTON. 

Three  new  Primary  School-houses  were  erected  in  Boston,  in  1847,  under 
the  direction  of,  and  on  plans  furnished  by,  JOSEPH  W.  INGRAHAM,  Esq., 
Chairman  of  the  Executive  Committee  of  the  Primary  School  Board,  and 
Chairman  of  their  Committee  on  School-houses.  Mr.  Ingraham  is  also  a 
member  of  the  Massachusetts  Board  of  Education.  He  has  devoted  himself 
assiduously,  and  without  compensation,  for  upwards  of  twenty-five  years,  to 
the  Primary  Schools  of  Boston,  and  the  cause  of  Education  generally ;  and 
no  one  is  better  acquainted  than  he  with  what  the  wants  and  conveniences 
of  both  pupils  and  teachers  require  in  edifices  for  this  class  of  schools.  The 
following  very  minute  description  and  plans  were  kindly  furnished,  on  appli- 
cation, by  him.  The  plans  are  copied  from  those  appended  to  his  Address 
at  the  Dedication  (March  27,  1848)  of  one  of  the  School-houses,  —  that  in 
Sheafe  street.  They  will  be  found  worthy  the  attention  of  all  who  are  inter- 
ested in  school  architecture.  The  distinguished  Secretary  of  the  Massachu- 
setts Board  of  Education,  (Mr.  Mann,)  who  was  present  at  the  dedication 
of  this  building,  in  his  remarks  at  the  subsequent  dedication  of  another 
School-house  in  Boston,  referred  to  this  as  "  perfect  of  its  kind,"  and  said  it 
"  might  well  be  called  the  model  School-house  of  the  State,  and  in  School- 
houses  Massachusetts  was  a  model  for  the  world."  The  teachers  in  one  of 
these  buildings,  after  having  occupied  their  rooms  for  five  months,  say  they 
'cannot  imagine  any  improvement  that  can  be  made." 

The  City  of  Boston  is  so  compact,  and  land  is  so  very  expensive,  that  it  is 
difficult  to  procure  sufficient  space  for  playgrounds  and  other  conveniences ; 
but  the  Schoolhouses  erected  during  the  past  year,  (1847,)  are  better  pro- 
vided for,  in  this  respect,  than  any  others  in  the  City. 

There  were  three  Schoolhouses  erected  during  the  year  1847,  on  plans 
devised  and  furnished  by  Mr.  Ingraham,  the  Chairman  of  the  Primary  School 
Committee  on  Schoolhouses.  The  general  features  of  each  are  the  same, 
differing  only  in  consequence  of  the  size  and  location  of  the  lots  on  which 
they  are  erected. 

These  Schoolhouses  are  believed  to  possess  greater  conveniences,  for  the 
comfort  and  happiness  of  both  teachers  and  scholars,  than  any  others  ever 
before  constructed.  In  planning  them,  several  objects  were  had  in  view. 
Among  these,  were, 

The  desire  to  allow  to  each  scholar  sufficient  space,  and  have  the  rooms 
perfectly  heated  and  ventilated,  so  that  no  one  should  suffer  from  want  of 
room,  or  comfortable  and  pure  air : 

To  have  all  the  light  in  the  Schoolrooms  come  in  from  one  side,  and  that 
at  the  backs  of  the  scholars,  to  prevent  the  detrimental  effects  of  o'oss-lights, 
which  are  very  injurious  to  the  eyes  of  young  children  when  in  a  forming  state : 

To  give  suitable  space,  on  the  walls,  for  the  display  of  maps,  charts,  pic- 
tures, &c.,  and  provide  sufficient  recitation-rooms,  closets,  cabinet  and  other 
necessary  conveniences : 

To  have  a  separate  entrance  for  each  school : 

To  so  arrange  the  usual  out-door  conveniences,  that  the  scholars  should 
not  have  to  go  out  of  doors  in  stormy  weather,  or  down  stairs,  to  gain  access 
to  them,  and  at  the  same  time,  by  removing  them  from  the  play-ground,  to 
obviate  the  objections  which  have  been  made,  by  some  teachers,  to  having 
both  sexes  in  the  play-ground  at  the  same  time,  during  the  recesses : 


PRIMARY  SC  HOOL-HOUSE 


177 


INGRAHAM  PRIMARY  SCHOOL-HOUSE,  BOSTOX. 

The  Schoolhouse,  to  which  the  following  description  and  plans  more  par- 
ticularly refer,  is  situated  in  Sheafe  street,  at  the  north  part  of  the  City,  and  on 
the  slope  of  Copp's  Hill,  famed  in  our  Revolutionary  history.  It  occupies  a 
space  of  twenty-six  by  fifty-three  feet,  exclusive  of  the  play-ground  in  front, 
between  it  and  the  street,  which  is  sixteen  by  fifty-three  feet.  This  front  is 
hardly  long  enough.  Sixty  feet  would  have  been  much  better.  The  main 
building  is  twenty-six  by  forty-four  feet ;  and  there  are  projections  at  each 
end, — one  on  the  west,  four  and  a  half  by  sixteen  and  a  half  feet,  contain- 
ing the  privies,  and  one  at  the  east  end,  three  and  a  half  by  twenty-one  and 
a  half  feet,  in  which  is  the  passage  from  the  lower  schoolroom  to  the  play- 
ground. 

The  building  is  three  stories  in  height.  Each  story  contains  a  Schoolroom, 
Recitation-rooms,  Closets,  Entries,  and  Privies,  and  is  finished  twelve  feet  high, 
in  the  clear.  Each  Schoolroom  is  lighted  by  four  windows,  which  are  all  on 
one  side.  The  first  floor  is  set  eighteen  inches  above  the  ground  at  the  front 
of  the  building.  The  Cellar  is  finished  seven  and  a  half  feet  high,  in  the 
clear ;  and  its  floor  is  on  a  level  with  the  surface  of  the  ground  at  the  back 
of  the  building,  where  is  the  entrance-door  to  the  first  story. 

The  Schoolrooms  in  the  first  and  second  stories  are  thirty  feet  in  length, 
by  twenty-two  feet  and  four  inches  in  width,  and  contain  six  hundred  and 
seventy  square  feet  of  floor.  That  in  the  third  story  is  thirty-two  feet  in 
length,  by  twenty-two  feet  and  nine  inches  in  breadth,  and* contains  seven 
hundred  and  thirty  square  feet  of  floor.  Thus  allowing  from  ten  to  twelve 
or  thirteen  square  feet  of  floor,  and  one  hundred  and  fifty  cubic  feet  of  air,  to 
each  scholar. 

The  following  diagram  will  show  the  arrangement  of  the  ground-floor, 
with  the  Play-ground  in  front. 


G  | 

12 


Scale  16  fe«t  to  the  inch. 


178  SCHOOL   ARCHITECTURE. 

The  following  references  will  apply  to  the  ground-plan  of  each  of  the  three 
stories. 

1,  Entrance  to  First  Story,  by  a  door  under  the  \vrindow  W,  the  back  part  of  the 
building  being  eight  feet  lower  than  the  front. 

2,  3,  Entrance-doors  to  the  Second  and  Third  Stories. 

A,  A,  A,  Stairs  to  First  Story,  from  the  Entrance-door  1. 

B,  Blinds  in  Boys'  Privies. 

F,  Fireplace  or  Furnace-flue,  or  Stove,  when  one  is  used  instead  of  a  Furnace. 

G,  G,  Entrance-gates  to  Second  and  Third  Stories.    The  Iron  Fence  extends  the  whole 
length  of  the  front  on  the  street,  broken  only  by  these  two  gates. 

R,  R,  Recitation-rooms,  or  spaces  used  for  that  purpose.  In  ihe first  story,  that  on  the 
right  being  the  entrance-passage  to  the  schoolroom,  and  that  on  the  left,  the  passage 
to  the  Second  Story. 

5,  S,  S,  S,  Large  Slates,  measuring  four  by  two  and  a  half  feet,  affixed  to  the  walls, 
instead  of  Blackboards. 

T,  T,  T,  Trees  in  Play-ground.     That  near  the  fence,  is  an  old  horse-chestnut  tree. 
U,  Umbrella  stands.     The  place  of  those  of  the  second  story  only  are  shown.    la 
the  other  stories,  they  are  also  in  the  entrance-passages. 
W,  W,  Windows. 
a,  Stairs  to  Second  Story. 

6,  6,  b,  In  second  story,  Entry,  and  place  for  Boys'  Clothes-hooks,  also  used  as  a 
Recitation -room.     In  third  story,  place  for  Clothes-hooks. 

c,  In  second  story,  Door  into  the  Recitation-room  where  are  the  Sink  and  Girls' 
Clothes-hooks.     In  third  story,  Door  into  Recitation-room  where  is  the  Brush  Closet 
and  entrance  to  Girls'  Privy. 

d,  d,  d,  In  second  story,  Girls'  Clothes-hooks. 

e,  Sinks. 

/,  Privy  for  Girls.  g,  Privy  for  Boys.  h,  Trough  in  ditto. 

t,  i,  Space  between  the  walls  of  the  Privies  and  main  building,  for  more  perfect  ven- 
tilation, and  cutting  off  of  any  unpleasant  odor.  [This  space  is  here  too  much  con- 
tracted, on  account  of  the  want  of  room.  It  would  be  much  lietter,  if  greatly  increased.] 

k,  Entrance-door  to  Schoolroom,  through  which,  only,  scholars  are  allowed  to  enter, 
In  third  story,  the  passage  from  the  stairs  to  the  Entrance-door  is  through  the  Recita- 
tion-room. 

/,  Teachers'  Platforms,  six  feet  wide  and  twelve  feet  long,  raised  seven  inches  from 
the  floors. 

m,  Teachers'  Tables. 

n,  Ventiduct.  That  for  each  room  is  in  the  centre  of  that  room.  These  are  better 
shown  in  the  diagram  representing  the  Ventilating  arrangement,  (p.  183.) 

o,  o,  Closets,  in  the  vacant  spaces  on  the  sides  of  the  Ventiducts,  in  the  First  and 
Second  Stories.  In  first  story,  they  are  on  each  side  of  the  Ventiduct ;  in  second  story 
only  on  one  side.  In  the  third  story,  there  are  of  course  none.  See  the  diagram  of  the 
Ventilating  arrangement,  (p.  183.) 

p,p,  Ventiducts  for  other  rooms.  In  plan  of  second  story,  p  shows  the  position  of  the 
Ventiduct  for  first  story.  In  third  story  plan,  pp  show  the  positions  of  those  for  both 
the  lower  stories. 

q,q,  q,  Childrens'  chairs,  arranged  in  the  second  story.  Their  form  is  represented  in 
another  diagram,  (p.  181.) 

r,  s,  t,  Hot-air  Flues  from  the  Furnace,  Cold-air  Flues  if  Stoves  are  used,  and  Smoke 
Flues.  These  will  be  better  understood  by  a  reference  to  the  diagram  explanatory  of 
the  Chimney  Pier,  (p.  182.) 

u,  u,  Cabinets  for  Minerals,  Shells,  and  other  objects  of  Natural  History  or  Curiosity. 

v,  Door  of  Recitation-room.  In  first  story,  this  door  leads  to  the  entry  in  which 
are  the  Sink,  Brush-Closet,  entrance  to  the  Privies,  and  passage  to  Second  Story.  In 
second  story,  it  leads  to  the  Recitation-room  where  is  the  Teacher's  Press-closet ;  and 
in  the  third  story,  to  that  in  which  are  the  Sink,  entrance  to  the  Privies,  and  Stairs  to 
the  Attic. 

it>,  Teacher's  Press-closet,  fitted  with  shelves  and  brass  clothes-hooks. 

x,  Closet  for  Brooms,  Brushes,  Coalhods,  &c.  That  for  the  first  story  is  under  the 
Second- Story  stairs. 

a,  a,  a,  Stairs  to  the  Third  Story. 

b,  b,  Doors  connecting  First  and  Second,  and  Second  and  Third  Stories. 

f,  Place  for  Fountain,  in  the  centre  of  the  Play-ground. 

g,  g.  g,  Grass-plats,  or  Flower-beds. 

p,  Passage  from  the  First-Story  Schoolroom  to  the  Play-ground. 

The  Plan  of  the  second  story,  on  the  next  page,  is  drawn  on  a  larger  scale, 
for  greater  convenience  in  showing  all  the  arrangements.  The  references  on 
this  diagram  are  more  copious  and  minute  than  on  either  of  the  others. 


PRIMARY   SCHOOL-HOUSE,   BOSTON. 


179 


oooo     000° 


180 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE 


The  building  fronts  nearly  N.  N.  E.,  and  of  course  all  the  light  comes  into 
the  Schoolrooms  from  the  North.  At  the  same  time,  in  order  to  secure  the 
benefit  of  the  winds  that  prevail  in  Summer,  and  the  admission  of  "  a  streak 
of  sunshine,"  which  adds  so  much  to  the  cheerfulness  of  any  room,  and 
particularly  of  a  schoolroom,  there  are  windows  in  the  back  or  southerly 
wall,  opening  into  the  recitation-rooms  or  entries,  through  which,  and  the 
entrance-doors,  the  sunlight  finds  its  way  into  each  schoolroom.  The  Nea- 
politan proverb,  "  Where  the  sun  does  not  come,  the  physician  must,"  has 
not  been  lost  sight  of;  though  it  must  be  confessed  that  we  have  not  been  able 
to  pay  so  much  attention  to  it  as  would  be  desirable. 

The  next  diagram,  which  is  on  the  same  scale  with  the  first,  will  show 
the  arrangement  of  the  third  story,  which  differs  from  the  first  and  second  in 
having  a  larger  schoolroom,  and  more  space  for  recitation-rooms;  less  space 
being  occupied  for  stairways  than  in  the  other  stories.  The  partitions  at  the 
ends  are  set  one  foot  each  way  nearer  to  the  ends  of  the  building,  making 
the  Schoolroom  thirty-two  feet  in  length,  while  the  others  are  only  thirty. 


IV 


Scale  16  feet  to  the  inch. 

It  will  be  seen,  that  the  ends  of  the  building  are  cut  off  from  the  school- 
rooms, by  entries,  stairways,  recitation-rooms,  &c.,  and  the  back  and  end 
walls  are  left  blank,  for  convenience  in  displaying  Maps,  Charts,  Pictures,  &c., 
and  for  the  large  Slates,  used  instead  of  Blackboards.  As  ample  provision, 
as  was  practicable,  has  been  made  for  recitation-rooms,  closets,  and  other 
necessary  conveniences. 

It  will  be  seen,  from  the  Plans  of  the  different  Stories,  that  the  Entrance- 
door  (A)  to  each  Schoolroom  is  'in  that  part  of  the  partition  nearest  to  the 
back  walls  ;  so  that,  on  entering  the  room,  the  Teacher's  Platform  is  directly 
before  the  scholar  or  visiter.  This  Platform  is  six  feet  wide  and  twelve  feet 
long,  and  is  raised  seven  inches  above  the  floor,  that  being  a  sufficient  height 
to  give  the  Teacher  a  full  view  of  the  whole  school.  In  the  transverse-sec- 
tional elevation,  (p.  184,)  the  raised  Platform  is  shown  at  P. 

On  this  Platform,  is  a  Table,  (m,)  instead  of  a  Desk,  that  being  the  more 
convenient  article  for  the  Teacher's  use.  On  it,  are  constantly  kept,  in  full 
view  of  the  scholars,  THE  LA.WS  OF  THE  SCHOOL, — the  Holy  Bible,  the  Rule 
and  Guide  of  Life,  the  Moral  and  Religious  Law ;  the  Dictionary,  the  Law 
of  Language,  the  Authority  for  Orthography  and  Orthoepy ;  and  the  Rules 
and  Regulations  of  the  Committee.  These  should  be  always  on  every 
Teacher's  table  or  desk,  and  should  be  frequently  appealed  to.  On  this 
Table,  also,  are  the  Record  Book  of  the  School,  Ink-standish,  Table  Bell, 
and  other  necessary  articles. 


PRIMARY    SCHOOL-HOUSE,    BOSTON. 


181 


In  front  of  the  Teacher's  Platform,  and  facing  it,  ar- 
ranged in  a  semi-circular  form,  as  shown  at  q  q  q,  in  the 
Plan  of  the  Second  Story,  are  the  Seats  for  the  schol- 
ars. These  are  comfortable  and  convenient  Arm-chairs, 
of  which  the  annexed  diagram  shows  the  form.  Each 
has  a  rack  at  the  side  (A)  for  convenience  in  holding 
the  books  or  slates  of  the  scholars.  These  chairs  were 
the  contrivance  of  Mr.  Ingraham,  and  were  introduced 
by  him  into  the  Primary  Schools,  in  1842,  since  which 
time,  the  Primary  School  Board  have  recommended  their 
introduction  into  all  their  schools,  in  preference  to  any 
other  seats,  and  about  one  hundred  and  thirty  of  the  one  hundred  and  sixty 
schools  are  now  supplied  with  them.  They  are  not  fastened  to  the  floor,  but 
can  be  moved  whenever  necessary ;  and  this  is  found  to  be  a  great  conve- 
nience, and  productive  of  no  disadvantage.  They  have  been  strongly  recom- 
mended by  the  Committees  on  School  and  Philosophical  Apparatus,  at  the 
Exhibitions  of  the  Massachusetts  Charitable  Mechanics'  Association,  in  1844 
and  1847,  and  premiums  were  awarded  for  them  in  both  those  years. 

The  following  diagram  is  an  elevation  of  the  Front  wall  of  the  Schoolroom, 
as  seen  from  the  Teacher's  Platform.  It  is  on  the  same  scale  with  the  pre- 
ceding Plan  of  the  Second  Story, — eight  feet  to  the  inch. 


Each  Schoolroom  is  lighted  by  four  windows  ;  and  in  the  central  pier,  be- 
tween the  windows,  are  the  Cold-air  and  Chimney  Flues,  or  the  Furnace 
Flues.  The  Fire-place,  or  Furnace  Flue,  is  represented  at  F,  as  in  the  pre- 
ceding Plans  of  the  different  Stories.  The  arrangement  of  the  Flues,  in  this 
pier,  will  be  seen  in  the  next  diagram. 

On  the  mantel-piece,  over  the  Furnace  Flue,  is,  in  one  room,  a  Vase  of  Na* 
tive  Grasses,  or  Flowers,  ind  in  the  others,  ornamental  Statues,  or  Statuettes 
furnished  by  the  Teachers  Above  this,  suspended  on  the  pier,  is  the  Clock. 

Between  the  other  windows,  are  Cabinets,  for  the  reception  of  Minerals, 
Shells,  and  other  objects  of  ^Natural  History  or  Curiosity.  Their  location  is 
seen  at  u  u,  in  the  Plans  of  the  respective  Stories.  There  are  two  of  these 
Cabinets  in  each  Schoolroom,  between  the  windows,  above  the  skirting,  and 
as  high  as  the  windows,  with  double  sash-doors,  of  cherry-wood,  hung  \vith 
brass  hinges,  fastened  with  thumb-slides  and  locks,  and  fitted  with  rosewood 
knobs.  There  are  twelve  shelves  in  each,  six  of  them  being  inclined,  with 
narrow  ledges  on  each,  to  prevent  the  specimens  from  rolling  off.  Immedi- 
ately below  them  are  small  Closets,  with  four  shelves  in  each,  and  double 
doors,  hung  and  fastened  in  the  same  manner  as  the  sash  doors. 

The  Blinds  of  the  Second  Story,  represented  in  this  diagram,  are  framed, 
two  parts  to  each  window,  and  are  hung  with  weights  and  pulleys,  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  window  sashes.  They  run  up  above  the  tops  of  the 
windows,  and  behind  the  skirting  of  the  next  story  above,  in  close  boxes,  and 


182 


SCHOOL     ARCHITECTURE. 


have  rings  on  the  bottom  rails,  to  draw  them  down.  In  this  elevation,  they 
are  shown  in  different  positions.  The  windows  in  the  First  Story  are  fitted 
with  Venetian  Blinds,  and  those  in  the  Third  Story  with  Inside  Shutter-Blinds. 
All  the  window-stools  are  wide,  and  contain  Vases  of  Native  Grasses,  or 
Flowers. 

Particular  attention  has  been  given  to  the  mode  of  Heating  and  Ventilating 
these  buildings  ;  and  provision  has  been  made  for  a  copious  and  constant  sup- 
ply of  fresh  air,  from  out-of-doors,  which  is  so  introduced,  that  it  is  suffi- 
ciently warmed  before  it  enters  the  Schoolrooms. 

The  Sheafe-street  building  is  heated  by  one  of  Chilson's  largest-sized  Fur- 
naces ,  though  it  was  originally  constructed  with  a  view  to  using  Dr.  Clark's 
excellent  Ventilating  Stoves,  as  in  the  other  two  buildings.* 

The  accompanying  diagram  shows  the  ar- 
rangement of  the  Cold-air  and  Smoke  Flues, 
as  arranged  for  the  Stoves.  It  will  be  well  to 
examine  it  in  connection  with  the  transverse- 
sectional  elevation,  (p.  184,)  and  the  Floor 
Plans  of  the  different  Stories,  (pp.  177,  179, 
180.) 

1,  2,  3,  Floorings  of  the  First,  Second,  and  Third 
Stories.  4,  Roof. 

CA,  Cold-air  Flue  for  First  Story,  which  deliv- 
ers the  air  from  without,  under  the  Stove,  as  shown 
at  C  A,  in  the  transverse-section,  (p.  184,)  and  at 
F,  in  the  floor-plans. 

r,  r,  Cold-air  Flue  for  Second  Story,  which  empties 
into  the  box  under  the  Stove,  at  CA,  in  the  Second 
Story  of  the  transverse-sectional  elevation.  It  cor- 
responds to  r,  in  the  Floor  Plans  of  the  Jirst  and 
second  stories. 

t,  t,  Cold-air  Flue  for  Third  Story,  which  empties 
into  the  box  CA,  under  the  Stove  of  that  Story, 
as  seen  in  the  transverse-sectional  elevation,  and 
at  F,  in  the  Floor  Plan.  It  corresponds  to  t,  in  the 
Floor  Plans. 

These  Cold-air  Ducts  are  twelve  by  eighteen 
inches,  inside,  and  are  smoothly  plastered,  through- 
out. This  is  hardly  large  enough,  however. 

s,  s,  Smoke  Flues.  That  of  First  Story  corre- 
sponds to  s,  in  the  floor  plan  of  Jirst  story,  and  to  r, 
in  those  of  the  second  and  third.  That  of  Second 
Story  corresponds  to  s,  in  second-story  Plan,  and  to 
t,  in  third-story  Plan.  That  of  Third  Story  cor- 
responds to  s,  on  the  Plan  of  that  Story. 

These  Smoke  Flues  are  eight  inches  square,  in- 
side, and  are  smoothly  plastered,  throughout.  That 
of  each  Story  commences  in  the  centre  of  the  pier 
in  the  room  to  which  it  belongs. 

[The  pier  in  which  these  Cold-air  Ducts  and 
Smoke  Flues  are  placed,  is  wider  than  the  piers  be- 
tween the  other  windows,  in  order  to  allow  sufficient 
width  to  the  Ducts.  It  must  be  at  least  six  feet.] 

It  will  be  seen,  from  the  transverse-sectional 
elevation,  (p.  184,)  (the  Smoke  Flue  in  which 
is  represented  as  continuous,  it  not  being  prac- 
ticable to  show  the  bends,)  as  well  as  from 
the  Plans  of  each  Story,  that  the  arrangements 
( for  Ventilation  are  directly  opposite  the  Chim- 
ney Flues.     The  Ventiducts  are  contained  in 
the   projecting  pier  back   of  the   Teachers' 
Scale  10  feet  to  the  inch  Platforms  and  Tables  shown  at  /,  m,  in  the 

Floor  Plans. 

It  has  already  been  stated,  that  particular  attention  has  been  paid  to  the 
*  Descriptions  and  Plans  of  this  Furnace  and  Stove  will  be  found  on  page  Ibo 


DEPARTMENT  OF  PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION, 

State  of  California.  A  mador  County, 

LIBRAE  i 


eld 


mode  of  Ventilation  ;  and  it  is  believed  that  the  system,  if  not  perfect,  is 
better  adapted  to  its  purpose  than  any  other.  The  Ventiduct  for  each  room 
is  of  sufficient  size  for  the  room  ;  and  the  three  are  arranged  as  shown  in  the 
next  diagram.  It  will  be  seen,  that  the  Ventiduct  for  each  room  is  in  the 
centre  of  the  pier,  thus  avoiding  any  unsymmetrical  or  one-sided  (and  of 
course  unsightly)  appearance. 

1,2,3,  4,  Floorings  of  the  First,  Second,  and  Third 
Stories,  and  Attic.  5,  Roof. 

c,  c,  c,  Ventiduct  of  First  Story,  commencing  in 
the  centre  of  the  pier.     Between  the  ceiling  of  this 
room  and  the  floor  of  the  Second  Story,  this  flue  is 
turned  to  the  left,  and  then  continues  in  a  straight 
line  to  the  Attic,  where  it  contracts  and  empties  into 
the  Ventilator  V,  on  the  Roof. 

d,  d,  d,  Ventiduct  of  Second  Story,  also  commenc- 
ing in  the  centre  of  the  pier,  and  turning  to  the 
right,  between  the  ceiling  of  the  Second  and  floor 
of  the  Third  Story,  whence  it  is  continued  to  the 
Attic,  and  empties  into  the  Ventilator  V. 

e,  e,  Ventiduct  of  Third  Story,  also  emptying 
into  V. 

These  Ventiducts  are  made  of  thoroughly  sea- 
soned pine  boards,  smooth  on  the  inside,  and  put 
together  with  two-inch  screws.  Each,  as  will  be 
seen,  is  placed  in  the  centre  of  the  room  to  which 
it  belongs.  They  are  kept  entirely  separate  from 
each  other,  through  their  whole  length,  from  their 
bases  to  the  point  where  they  are  discharged  into 
the  Ventilators  on  the  Roof.  Each  is  sixteen  inches 
square  inside,  through  its  whole  length  to  the  Attic. 
where,  as  will  be  seen  by  the  diagram,  each  is  made 
narrower  as  it  approaches  its  termination,  till  it  is 
only  eight  inches  in  width,  on  the  front,  the  three 
together  measuring  twenty-five  inches,  the  diame- 
»er  of  the  base  of  the  Ventilator  on  the  roof.  As 
they  are  contracted,  however,  in  this  direction,  they 
are  gradually  enlarged  from  back  to  front,  so  that 
each  is  increased  from  sixteen  to  twenty  -four  inches, 
the  three  together  then  forming  a  square  of  twenty- 
five  inches,  and  fitting  the  base  of  the  Ventilator 
into  which  they  are  discharged.  The  increase  in 
this  direction  will  be  better  seen  in  the  Elevation 
on  p.  184,  where  V  V  represents  one  Ventiduct, 
continued  from  the  lower  floor  to  the  Ventilator. 

V,  Ventilator,  on  the  Roof,  into  which  the  three 
Ventiducts  from  the  schoolrooms  are  discharged. 
This  is  twenty-five  inches  in  diameter.* 

v,  v,  Registers,  to  regulate  the  draught  of  air 
through  the  Ventiducts.  There  are  two  of  these 
in  each  Ventiduct,  —  one  at  the  bottom,  to  carry  off 
the  lower  and  heavier  stratum  of  foul  air,  which 
always  settles  near  the  floor  ;  and  the  other  near 
the  ceiling  of  the  room,  for  the  escape  of  the  lighter 
impure  air,  which  ascends  with  the  heat  to  the  top 
of  the  room.  Each  of  these  Registers  has  a  swivel- 
blind.  fitted  with  a  stay-rod,  and  may  be  easily 
opened  or  closed  by  the  Teacher. 

o,  o,  Closets.  The  Ventiduct  of  each  Story  being 
in  the  centre  of  the  projecting  pier,  affords  room 
for  Closets,  on  each  side  in  the  First  Story,  and  on 
one  side  in  the  Second  Story,  as  shown  at  o  o.  There 
are  four  in  the  First  Story,  two  above  and  two  be- 
low the  wainscot.  In  the  Second  Story,  there  are 
two  only,  one  above  and  the  other  below  the  wain- 
scot ;  the  other  side  of  the  pier  being  occupied  by 
the  Ventiduct  of  the  First  Story.  In  the  Third 
Story  there  are  of  course  none.  Scale  10  feet  to  the  inch. 

*  A  description,  and  larger  plans,  of  this  Ventilator,  are  given  on  page  144. 


184 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


1,2,  3,  4,  Floor- 
ings of  the  First 
Second,andThird, 
Stories,  and  the 
Attic. 

C,  The  Cellar. 

C  A,  Cold-air 
Boxes,  opening 
under  the  btoves. 

S,  Smoke  Flue. 

P,  Teachers' 
Platforms. 

V,  Ventiduct, 
emptying  into  the 
Ventilator  on  the 
Roof. 

v,  v,  Ventiduct 
Registers. 

V,  Ventilator. 


fc«^,^« 

Scale  10  feet  to  the  Inch. 


PRDIARY   SCHOOL-HOUSE,    BOSTON.  185 

This  plan  of  arranging  the  Heating  and  Ventilating  apparatus  has  been 
adopced  by  the  Committee  on  Ventilation  of  the  Grammar  School  Board  ;* 
but  as  their  plans  and  diagrams  were  taken  from  Mr.  Ingraham's  first  draughts, 
before  his  final  arrangement  was  decided  upon,  they  are  not  so  complete  as 
these. 

The  preceding  diagram  gives  a  transverse-sectional  elevation  of  the  building. 

It  has  already  been  stated,  that  the  children  are  seated  with  their  backs  to 
the  light,  and  their  faces  towards  the  Teacher's  Table  and  the  wall  above  and 
on  either  side  of  it.  On  this  wall,  and  also  on  the  two  end  walls,  (as  shown 
in  the  transv|rse-section,)  are  suspended  Maps,  Charts,  and  Pictures,  not 
only  for  ornament,  but  for  the  communication  of  instruction.  Vases  of  Flow- 
ers and  Native  Grasses  ornament  the  window-stools  and  the  Teachers'  Tables ; 
and  Statuettes  and  other  useful  ornaments  and  decorations  are  placed  in  vari- 
ous parts  of  the  rooms :  so  that  whatever  meets  the  eyes  of  the  children  is 
intended  to  convey  useful  and  pleasing  impressions,  encouraging  and  gratify- 
ing the  love  of  the  beautiful,  and  combining  the  useful  with  the  agreeable. 
The  Cabinets  of  Minerals,  Shells,  and  other  objects  of  Natural  History  and 
Curiosity,  add  much  to  the  interest  and  beauty  of  the  rooms. 

On  the  back  wall,  on  either  side  of  the  Teacher's  Platform,  at  S  S  S  S,  are 
four  large  Slates,  in  cherry-wood  frames,  each  twro  and  a  half  by  four  feet, 
used  instead  of  Blackboards.  These  Slates  are  far  preferable  to  the  best 
Blackboards,  and  cost  about  the  same  as  common  ones.  The  Teachers 
greatly  prefer  them  to  Blackboards.  In  using  them,  slate  pencils  are  of  course 
employed,  instead  of  chalk  or  crayons,  and  thus  the  dust  and  dirt  of  the  chalk 
or  crayons, — which  is  not  only  disagreeable  to  the  senses,  but  deleterious 
to  health,  by  being  drawn  into  the  lungs, — are  avoided.  These  Slates  may 
be  procured  in  Boston,  of  A.  Wilbur. 

Each  School  has  convenient  Recitation-rooms ;  though,  in  consequence  of 
the  space  occupied  by  the  stairs  to  the  Second  and  Third  Stories,  the  lower 
Story  is  not  so  conveniently  accommodated,  in  this  respect,  as  could  be  de- 
sired. It  has,  however,  two  good  Entries,  which  are  used  for  this  purpose. 
In  the  Second  and  Third  Stories,  there  are  three  of  these  rooms,  of  which 
much  use  is  made.  Their  location  is  shown  in  the  Floor  Plans. 

In  these  ante-rooms,  are  Closets  for  Brooms,  Brushes,  and  other  necessary 
articles  of  that  description,  and  also  Press-closets,  furnished  with  shelves 
and  brass  clothes-hooks,  for  the  Teachers'  private  use.  In  these,  also,  are 
Sinks,  furnished  with  drawers  and  cupboards,  pails,  basins  and  ewers,  mugs, 
&c.  Pipes  leading  from  the  Sinks,  convey  the  waste  water  into  the  Vaults ; 
and  in  a  short  time,  the  waters  of  Lake  Cochituate  will  be  led  into  each  Story. 

Each  School  has  its  own  separate  entrance  ;  so  that  they  will  not  interfere 
with  each  other.  And  each  is  provided  with  sufficient  conveniences  in  its 
entry,  for  hanging  the  clothing  of  the  pupils,  thus  avoiding  the  necessity  of 
its  ever  being  brought  into  the  Schoolroom.  Each  has  also  two  Umbrella- 
stands  in  its  entry. 

In  the  Cellar,  are  placed  the  Furnace,  and  necessary  conveniences  attached 
to  it,  with  Bins  for  coal  and  wood.  Also  two  Rain-water  Butts,  one  at  each 
end,  which  receive  all  the  water  from  the  Roofs.  Being  connected  with 
each  other,  by  leaden  pipes,  under  ground,  the  water  in  both  stands  at  the 
same  level ;  and  a  pipe,  leading  from  the  top  of  one  of  them  into  the  Vault, 
prevents  their  ever  running  over. 

The  Cellar  is  paved  with  brick,  and  is  convenient  for  a  play-room,  when 
the  weather  is  too  stormy  for  the  children  to  go  out  of  doors  at  recess-time. 

Instead  of  having  the  usual  out-door  conveniences  in  the  yard,  they  are 
here  connected  with  the  entries  of  the  respective  schoolrooms,  so  that  no 
child  has  to  go  into  the  open  air,  except  for  play  in  recess-time,  or  to  go 

*  See  a  notice  of  their  plans  on  page  153. 


186 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


home.     This  is  considered  a  very  great  convenience,  and  a  matter  of  the 
highest  importance. 


a,  a,  Surface  of 
tne  water  in  the 
Sesspool. 

b,  Outlet  to  the 
common  sewer. 

c,  c,  Surface  of 
the  ground  outside 
the  building. 

d,  d,  Floors  of 
First    Story,     of 
stone. 

e,  e,  Floors   of 
Second  Story. 

/,  /,  Floors  of 
Third  Story. 

gtgt  Attic. 

1,2,3,  Seats  and 
Wells  of  First, 
Sccond,and  Third, 
Stories. 

V,V,V,  Venti- 
duct, ten  inches 
square  inside,  ex- 
tending from  with- 
in one  foot  of  the 
surface  of  the 
water  in  the  Sess- 
pool, to  the  Ven- 
tilator on  the  roof. 
Its  sides  are  repre- 
sented by  the  dot- 
ted lines 


Scale  10  feet  to  the  inch. 

The  preceding  transverse-section  will  show  the  peculiar  arrangement  of  the 
Privies  to  the  different  stories,  and  the  manner  in  which  all  unpleasant  conse- 
quences or  inconveniences  are,  it  is  believed,  effectually  guarded  against. 


PRIMARY    SCHOOL-HOUSE,    BOSTON.  187 

By  the  Plans  of  the  different  Stories,  it  will  be  seen,  that  the  Privies  are  in 
a  Projection  on  the  western  end  of  the  building,  the  wall  of  which  is  sepa- 
rated from  that  of  the  main  building,  by  the  space  i  i,  this  space  being  four 
inches  between  the  walls,  and  extending  from  the  floor  of  the  First  Story  to 
the  Attic.  The  doors  leading  from  the  entries  are  kept  closed,  by  strong 
springs;  and  at  B,  in  the  southern  wall,  is  a  Blind,  through  which  the  air 
constantly  passes  into  this  space,  and  up  to  the  Attic,  whence  it  is  conveyed 
in  a  tight  box  to  the  Ventilator  on  the  Roof.  Except  in  very  cold  or  stormy 
weather,  the  window  in  the  northern  side  is  kept  open,  (the  outer  blinds  be- 
ing closed,)  and  thus  the  whole  of  the  Projection  is  cut  off  from  the  main 
building  by  external  air.  The  space  between  the  Projection  and  the  main 
building  is  not,  however,  so  great  as  it  would  have  been  made,  had  there 
been  more  room. 

It  will  be  seen,  that  there  is  a  distinct  Well  to  each  Privy,  separated 
from  the  others  by  a  brick  wall  ending  below  the  surface  of  the  water  in  the 
sesspool.  Of  course,  the  only  odor  that  can  possibly  come  into  either  of  the 
apartments,  must  come  from  the  well  of  that  apartment,  there  being  no  com- 
munication with  any  other,  except  through  the  water.  And  as  every  time  it 
rains,  or  water  is  thrown  in  from  the  sinks,  the  water  in  the  sesspool  will  be 
changed,  and  washed  into  the  common  sewer,  it  would  seem  that  no  danger 
of  unpleasant  odor  need  be  feared.  When  the  City  water  is  carried  to  every 
floor  of  the  building,  the  conveniences  for  frequently  washing  out  the  sesspool 
will  be  greatly  increased. 

There  are  two  apartments  on  each  floor ;  one  for  the  girls,  at/,  and  anoth- 
er for  the  boys,  at  g.  In  the  latter,  is  a  trough,  (A,)  with  a  sesspool,  and 
pipe  leading  into  the  well,  under  the  seat.  There  is  no  window  in  the  boys' 
apartment,  but  merely  the  blind,  B,  which  extends  from  the  floor  to  the  ceil- 
ing. The  girls'  apartment,  being  in  the  front  part  of  the  Projection,  is  pro- 
vided with  a  window  similar  to  the  others,  and  outside  blinds. 

Each  apartment  is  fitted  with  pine  risers,  seats,  and  covers.  The  covers 
are  hung  with  stout  duck  or  India-rubber  cloth,  instead  of  metal  hinges, 
which  would  be  liable  to  corrode,  and  are  so  arranged  that  they  will  fall  of 
themselves,  when  left.  The  edges  of  the  cloth  are  covered  with  narrow 
slats.  There  is  a  box  for  paper  in  each  apartment.  The  whole  finish  is 
equal  to  that  of  any  other  part  of  the  building. 

The  interior  plastering  of  all  the  walls  of  the  building  is  hard-finished, 
suitably  for  being  painted. 

All  the  Rooms,  Entries,  Stairways,  and  Privies,  are  skirted  up  as  high  as 
the  window-stools,  with  narrow  matched  beaded  lining,  gauged  to  a  width 
not  exceeding  seven  inches,  and  set  perpendicularly. 

The  interior  wood-work  of  the  lower  Schoolroom,  as  well  as  the  interior  of 
all  the  Closets  and  Cabinets,  is  painted  white.  The  skirting  of  the  Secono 
Story  is  of  maple,  unpainted,  but  varnished.  All  the  rest  of  the  inside 
wood-work  is  painted  and  grained  in  imitation  of  maple,  and  varnished.  The 
outside  doors  are  painted  bronze.  The  blinds  are  painted  with  four  coats  of 
Paris  green,  and  varnished. 

In  some  other  schoolrooms  in  the  City,  the  interior  wood-work, — even  of 
common  white  pine, — has  been  left  unpainted,  but  varnished,  with  a  very  good 
effect ;  and  it  is  contemplated  to  have  some  of  the  new  Schoolhouses  soon  to  be 
erected,  finished  in  the  same  way.  White  pine,  stained  with  asphaltum,  and 
varnished,  presents  a  beautiful  finish,  and  is  cheaper  than  painting  or  graining. 

In  the  angles  formed  by  the  meeting  of  the  walls  with  the  ceiling  of  each 
room,  and  entirely  around  the  room,  are  placed  rods,  fitted  with  moveable 
rings,  for  convenience  in  suspending  maps,  charts,  and  pictures,  and  to  avoid 
the  necessity  of  driving  nails  into  the  walls. 

It  has  been  stated,  above,  that  the  space  between  the  Privies  and  the  main 
building,  in  the  Sheafe  street  Schoolhouse,  is  not  so  great  as  is  desirable,  nor 


188 


SCHOOL   ARCHITECTURE. 


as  it  would  have  been,  had  there  been  more  room.  In  the  Schoolhouse  in 
Tremont  street,  erected  at  the  same  time  with  that  in  Sheafe  street,  there 
being  sufficient  room  for  the  purpose,  the  Projection  containing  the  Privies 
is  nine  and  a  half  by  twelve  feet,  and  the  wells  of  the  Privies  are  seven  feet 
from  the  wall  of  the  main  building. 

The  following  Plans  were  prepared  for  a  new  arrangement  of  the  Sheafe 
street  Schoolhouse,  when  it  was  contemplated  to  occupy  a  space  eighty  feet 
in  depth,  extending  from  Sheafe  street  to  the  Avenue  in  the  rear.  In  these 
Plans,  the  Projection  for  the  Privies  is  about  ten  by  sixteen  feet ;  and  the 
entrance  to  each  of  the  Privies  is  six  feet  from  the  wall  of  the  main  building, 
and  separated  from  it  by  three  doors.  This  gives  them  as  much  space,  and 
separates  them  as  much  from  the  main  building,  as  is  needed. 

Plan  of  First  Story.    Scale  2-1  feet  to  the  'inch. 
Playground  in  front. 


It  will  be  seen,  from  this  Plan,  that  the  building  was  to  have  an  end  front- 
ing on  Sheafe  street,  (from  which  it  was  to  be  set  back  nineteen  feet,)  and  a 
side  looking  into  two  of  the  Playgrounds,  each  of  which  was  to  be  twenty- 
seven  by  thirty  feet.  The  nineteen  feet  between  the  building  and  the  street. 
and  on  a  line  with  the  building,  the  whole  extent  of  the  fifty-three  feet  on 
Sheafe  street,  was  to  form  a  third  Playground. 

It  has  already  been  mentioned,  that  the  ground  at  the  rear  of  the  building, 
on  the  Avenue,  is  eight  feet  lower  than  at  the  front,  on  Sheafe  street ;  and 
the  scholars  of  the  lower  room  were  to  enter,  as  they  do  now,  from  the  Ave- 
nue, by  a  door  under  the  window  A,  and  pass  to  their  schoolroom  up  the 
stairs  A,  through  the  door  k.  Their  Playground  was  to  have  been  at  the 
front  end,  on  Sheafe  street,  to  which  they  were  to  pass  through  the  Recita- 
tion-room R,  and  out  by  the  door  1.  The  space  between  the  Privies  and  the 
nain  building,  which  is  a  three-feet  passage,  is  shown  at  i,  as  in  the  former 
Plans,  pp.  177,  179,  180. 

The  Entrance-doors  for  the  second  and  third  stories  are  shown  at  2,  3. 

Plan  of  Second  Story. 


PRDIARY    SCHOOL-HOUSE,    BOSTON. 
Plan  of  Third  Story. 


189 


t«spects,  these  Plans  present  some  improvement  over  that  of  the 
hiding  in  Sheafe  street,  which  is  only  forty-four  feet  in  length, 
while  thai  proposed  in  these  Plans  is  fifty  feet.  This,  of  course,  allows 
more  space  for  the  stairways,  Recitation-rooms,  &c. 

These  three  Plans  will  be  easily  understood,  by  comparing  them  with 
those  on  pp.  177,  179,  180,  181,  which  are  there  fully  explained. 


Some  persons,  perhaps,  may  think  that  ornaments  and  decorations,  such  as 
have  been  here  described,  are  not  necessary  in  a  Schoolhouse  ;  though  none, 
we  presume,  will  think  them  out  of  place.  Why  should  not  the  places, 
where  both  Teachers  and  children  spend  so  large  a  portion  of  their  time,  be 
made  as  pleasant  and  attractive  as  possible  ?  The  Schoolroom  is  the  Teach- 
er's parlor  and  drawing-room  ;  and  should  always,  not  only  be  neat  and  tidy, 
but  exhibit  evidences  of  good  taste  and  useful  ornament.  Why  should  blank 
and  naked  walls,  presenting  a  cold  and  cheerless  aspect,  unrelieved  by  a  sin- 
gle pleasant  spot  or  speck  of  verdure,  be  the  only  or  principal  objects  to  meet 
the  eyes  of  the  young  inmates  of  these  establishments,  who  are  here  to  re- 
ceive those  first  impressions,  which,  as  they  are  the  most  lasting,  and  indeed 
almost  indelible,  should  always  be  useful,  and  promotive  of  some  useful  pur- 
pose? Everything  which  will  give  to  young  persons  "a  perception  of  the 
Beautiful,"  is  of  great  value  ;  and  everything  that  can  be  done  to  render  the 
interior  of  our  schoolrooms  pleasant  and  attractive,  is  of  importance.  "  Why," 
says  Mrs.  Sigourney,  in  a  valuable  Essay  '  On  the  Perception  of  the  Beau- 
tiful,' "  why  should  not  the  interior  of  our  schoolhouses  aim  at  somewhat 
of  the  taste  and  elegance  of  a  parlor?  Might  not  the  vase  of  flowers  enrich 
the  mantelpiece,  and  the  walls  display,  not  only  well-executed  maps,  but  his- 
torical engravings  or  pictures?  and  the  bookshelves  be  crowned  with  the  bust 
of  Moralist  or  Sage,  Orator  or  Father  of  his  Country  ?  Is  it  alleged  that  the 
expense,  thus  incurred,  would  be  thrown  away,  the  beautiful  objects  defaced, 
and  the  fair  scenery  desecrated  ?  This  is  not  a  necessary  result.  I  have 
been  informed,  by  Teachers  who  had  made  the  greatest  advances  towards 
the  appropriate  and  elegant  accommodation  of  their  pupils,  that  it  was  not 
so.  They  have  said  it  was  easier  to  enforce  habits  of  neatness  and  order 
among  objects  whose  taste  and  value  made  them  worthy  of  care,  than  amid 
that  parsimony  of  apparatus,  whose  pitiful  meanness  operates  as  a  temptation 
to  waste  and  destroy."  And  it  will  always  also  be  found  that  those  schools 
where  the  most  attention  has  been  paid  to  making  the  rooms  pleasant  and 
attractive  to  the  children,  will  be  the  most  orderly,  and  well  disciplined, 
while  in  those  held  in  ordinary  rooms,  where  no  attention  seems  to  be  given  to 
refinement  in  appearances,  the  pupils  are  also  proportionably  unrefined  and 
undisciplined. 


190  SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 

"  Let  the  communities,"  continues  Mrs.  Sigourney,  in  'the  Essay  just 
quoted,  "  let  the  communities,  now  so  anxious  to  raise  the  standard  of  edu- 
cation, venture  the  experiment  of  a  more  liberal  adornment  of  the  dwellings 
devoted  to  it.  Let  them  put  more  faith  in  that  respect  for  the  beautiful,  which 
really  exists  in  the  young  heart,  and  requires  only  to  be  called  forth  and  nur- 
tured, to  become  an  ally  of  virtue  and  a  handmaid  to  religion.  Knowledge 
has  a  more  imposing  effect  on  the  young  mind,  when  it  stands,  like  the  Apos- 
tle with  the  gifts  of  healing,  at  the  '  beautiful  gate  of  the  Temple.'  Mem- 
ory looks  back  to  it,  more  joyously,  from  the  distant  or  desolated  tracks  of 
life,  for  the  bright  scenery  of  its  early  path."  "  But  when  the  young  chil- 
dren of  this  Republic  are  transferred  from  the  nursery  to  those  buildings, 
whose  structure,  imperfect  ventilation,  and  contracted  limits,  furnish  too 
strong  an  idea  of  a  prison,  the  little  spirits,  which  are  in  love  with  freedom 
and  the  fair  face  of  Nature,  learn  to  connect  the  rudiments  of  knowledge  with 
keen  associations  of  task-work,  discomfort,  and  thraldom."  "  I  hope  the  time 
is  coming, when  every  isolated  village  schoolhouse  shall  be  as  an  Attic  temple, 
on  whose  exterior  the  occupant  may  study  the  principles  of  symmetry  and 
of  grace.  Why  need  the  structures,  where  the  young  are  initiated  into 
those  virtues  which  make  life  beautiful,  be  divorced  from  taste,  or  devoid  of 
comfort?" 

"  Do  any  reply,  that '  the  perception  of  the  Beautiful'  is  hut  a  luxurious  sen- 
sation, and  may  be  dispensed  with  in  those  systems  of  education  which  this 
age  of  utility  establishes?  But  is  not  its  culture  the  more  demanded,  to 
throw  a  healthful  leaven  into  the  mass  of  society,  and  to  serve  as  some 
counterpoise  for  that  love  of  accumulation,  which  pervades  every  rank,  in- 
trudes into  every  recess,  and  spreads  even  in  consecrated  places  the  '  tables  of 
the  money-changers,  and  the  seats  of  such  as  sell  doves?' 

"  In  ancient  times,  the  appreciation  of  whatever  was  beautiful  in  the  frame 
of  Nature,  was  accounted  salutary,  by  philosophers  and  sages.  Galen  says, 
4  He  who  has  two  cakes  of  bread,  let  him  sell  one,  and  buy  some  flowers ; 
for  bread  is  food  for  the  body,  hut  flowers  are  food  for  the  soul.'  " 

"  If  the  perception  of  the  Beautiful  may  be  made  conducive  to  present  im- 
provement, and  to  future  happiness ;  if  it  have  a  tendency  to  refine  and 
sublimate  the  character ;  ought  it  not  to  receive  culture  throughout  the  whole 
process  of  education?  It  takes  root,  most  naturally  and  deeply,  in  the  sim- 
ple and  loving  heart ;  and  is,  therefore,  peculiarly  fitted  to  the  early  years  of 
life,  when,  to  borrow  the  language  of  a  German  writer,  'every  sweet  sound 
takes  a  sweet  odor  by  the  hand,  and  walks  in  through  the  open  door  of  the 
child's  heart.'  " 

We  insert  Mr.  Ingraham's  communication,  unabridged,  although  it  was 
drawn  up  by  him  as  the  material  out  of  which  we  should  prepare  a  descrip- 
tion. We  have  also  preserved  his  system  of  punctuation  and  capitalizing, 
though  it  differs  from  that  followed  in  other  parts  of  this  work. 

We  think  very  highly  of  the  plan  of  the  Sheafe  street  School-house. 
Any  objections  we  might  entertain  to  some  of  the  details,  could  be  easily 
obviated  in  places  where  land  is  not  so  expensive  as  in  Boston.  We  prefer, 
however,  to  see  the  Primary  School-house  with  but  one  story,  and  in  no 
case  with  more  than  two  stories.  In  cities,  the  basement,  under  the  school 
room,  should  always  be  paved,  and  fitted  up  for  a  covered  play-ground,  as 
is  the  case  in  Mr.  Ingraham's  plans. 

Mr.  Ingraham,  in  his  letter,  acknowledges  his  obligations  to  Mr.  F.  Em- 
erson, and  Dr.  Henry  G.  Clark,  for  valuable  aid  in  arranging  his  system  of 
ventilation,  and  also  to  Mr.  Joseph  E.  Billings,  the  Architect,  for  aid  in  the 
architectural  arrangements,  and  for  the  manner  in  which  the  working  clans 
were  drawn. 


PRIMARY    SCHOOL-HOUSE,    BOSTON.  191 

Having  given  so  minute  a  description  of  this  School-house,  we  shall  confer 
a  favor  upon  such  of  our  readers  as  may  wish  to  erect  buildings  like  it,  if  we 
insert,  entire,  MR.  INGRAHAM'S  original  Specification  for  the  workmen,  with 
such  modifications  as  he  proposes  to  introduce  into  the  new  buildings,  which 
are  to  be  erected  during  the  present  year,  (1848.) 

SPECIFICATION 

Of  materials  to  be  provided,  and  labor  performed,  in  the  erection  of  a  Primary  School- 
house,  to  be  built  on  a  lot  of  land  lying  upon  the  southerly  side  of  Sheafe  street, 
according  to  the  plans  of  JOSEPH  W.  INGRAHAM,  Chairman  of  the  Primary  School 
Committee  on  Schoolhouses,  as  exhibited  in  the  Drawings  made  by  Joseph  E. 
Billings,  Architect. 

DESCRIPTION. 

The  building  is  to  be  three  stories  high ;  each  Story  is  to  contain  a  Schoolroom, 
Recitation-rooms,  Entries,  and  Privies,  and  to  finish  twelve  feet  high,  in  the  clear. 
The  first  floor  is  to  be  set  eighteen  inches  above  the  ground,  at  the  front  of  the  build- 
ing. The  Cellar,  under  the  whole  building,  (except  the  entrance  to  the  first-story 
Schoolroom,  which  is  to  finish  six  feet  and  eight  inches,)  is  to  be  finished  seven  and 
one  half  feet  high,  in  the  clear.  The  main  building  is  to  measure  twenty-six  by  forty- 
four  feet,  upon  the  ground  plan,  above  the  underpinning ;  the  Projection  ou  the  east 
end,  three  and  oae  half  bv  twenty  and  one  half  feet ;  and  the  Projection  containing  the 
Privies,  four  and  one  half  by  sixteen  and  one  half  feet.  The  Roof  is  to  have  an  inclina- 
tion of  thirty  degrees. 

The  Front  and  Side  Walls  of  the  main  building,  and  the  Front  Walls  of  the  Projec- 
tions, above  the  underpinning,  and  the  Rear  Wall  of  the  main  building  and  sides  of 
the  Projections,  from  the  level  of  the  ground  on  the  rear  of  the  lot,  are  to  be  built  of 
brick 

MASON'S  WORK. 

Excavating". 

The  Dirt  and  Rubbish  is  to  be  dug  out,  as  required,  for  the  Cellar,  the  Cellar-Walls, 
the  Vault,  and  the  Drains  ;  and  the  remainder  of  the  lot  is  to  be  graded  up,  on  an 
inclination  of  one  inch  to  a  foot,  from  Sheafe  street  to  the  front  of  the  building. 

All  the  rubbish,  and  the  dirt  that  is  not  required  for  filling  in,  is  to  be  removed  from 
the  premises.  All  the  Loam  is  to  be  carefully  taken  up,  kept  by  itself,  and  spread 
upon  the  surface  of  the  Playground,  as  may  be  directed  by  the  Committee. 

Rough  Stone. 

The  Footings  to  all  the  walls  and  piers,  and  the  Cellar  and  Foundation-walls,  are  to 
be  built  of  square-split  Sandy-Bay  or  Quincy  cellar-stone.  The  Bottom  or  Footing- 
course  is  to  be  puddled  and  rammed  to  a  perfect  bed,  and  those  to  the  main  walls  and 
the  piers,  are  to  be  laid  entirely  below  the  level  of  the  cellar  floor.  The  Walls  are  to 
j>e  laid  in  lime  mortar ;  and  those  of  the  Cellar  are  to  be  faced  and  pointed  on  the 
uiside.  The  Footings  are  to  be  eighteen  inches  rise.  Those  to  the  main  walls  are  to 
be  three  feet  in  width  ;  those  to  the  projections  are  to  be  two  and  one  half  feet  in 
width  ;  and  those  to  the  piers  are  to  be  three  feet  square.  The  Front  Wall  of  the 
Cellar  is  to  be  two  feet  thick,  and  the  other  Walls  twenty  inches.  Good  and  sufficient 
Foundations  are  toj)e  laid  for  the  Steps,  Window  Curbs,  &c. 

Hammered  Stone. 

The  Underpinning  to  the  front  walls  of  the  main  building  and  projections,  and  the 
Returns  at  the  first-story  Entrance-doors,  the  Steps  to  the  Entrance-doors,  the  Thresh- 
olds to  the  Entrance-doors  and  Gates,  the  Curbs,  Sills,  and  Caps,  to  the  cellar-windows, 
the  Curbs  to  the  sesspool,  the  Fence-stone,  and  the  Platform  steps  to  the  Entrance- 
doors,  are  to  be  of  Q,uincy  granite,  of  e^en  color,  free  from  sap,  rust,  or  flaws,  fine- 
hammered,  with  all  the  returns,  rabbets,  washes,  &c.,  indicated  by  the  Drawings. 
The  Floors  to  the  Privies  on  the  first-story,  a  Moveable  Cover  to  the  Vault,  and 
Hearth-stone  in  each  Schoolroom,  are  to  be  o"f  North-River  Flagging-stoue.     About 


192  SCHOOL   ARCHITECTURE. 

three  quarters  of  the  Playground  is  also  to  be  laid  with  North-River  Flagging-stone, 
as  may  be  hereafter  directed  by  the  Committee.  The  rest  of  the  Playground  is  to  be 
left  unpaved,  for  flower  beds,  &c. 

There  is  to  be  an  Iron  Strainer  fitted  to  the  Sesspopl-cover.  The  Hearth-stones  are 
each  to  be  three  feet  square,  with  a  circular  hole  in  the  centre,  eighteen  inches  in 
diameter,  for  the  admission  of  the  cold  air  under  the  stove. 

Sand-stone. 

There  is  to  be  a  set  of  Caps  and  Sills  to  each  of  the  windows  in  the  brick  walls,  and 
Caps  to  the  entrance-doors.  The  Caps  to  the  doors  are  to  be  four  courses  rise,  and  ten 
inches  thick,  and  those  to  the  third-story  front  windows  eight  and  one  half  inches 
thick  :  the  other  Caps  are  to  be  four  inches  thick.  The  Sills  to  the  windows  are  to  be 
eight  inches  wide.  The  Sills  and  Caps  to  the  blind-openings,  in  the  rear  wall  of  the 
privies,  are  to  be  of  the  full  thickness  of  the  wall,  and  finished  on  all  sides.  There  is 
to  be  a  Moulded  Belt  on  the  front,  and  over  the  east  and  west  entrance-doors  ;  and  a 
Base  and  Cap  to  the  Chimney,  of  the  forms  shown  by  the  Drawings.  All  the  above  is 
to  be  of  the  first  quality  of  Connecticut  free-stone  ;  that  in  the  faced-brick-work  is  to  be 
sand-rubbed,  and  the  remainder  fine-chiselled. 

All  the  stone-work  is  to  be  set  in  lime-mortar,  and  Cramped,  Headed,  and  Pointed, 
as  required. 

Brick-work. 

The  Front  Walls,  above  the  underpinning,  the  Rear,  Side,  and  Privy  Walls,  from 
the  rough  stone,  the  Piers  in  the  cellar,  the  Backing-up  of  the  stone-work,  the  Lining 
of  the  Vault,  the  Walls  between  the  privies,  the  Sesspool,  the  Drains,  and  the  Flues, 
are  to  be  built  of  hard-burnt  Charlestown  (not  Fresh  Pond)  bricks,  excepting  the  Facing 
of  the  front  and  side  walls  of  the  main  building  and  the  front  walls  of  the  projections, 
the  Covings,  and  the  Chimney,  which  are  to  be  of  the  first  quality  of  pressed-brick, 
laid  plumb-bond,  tied  into  the  other  work  with  bond-irons  in  every  seventh  course. 

The  Front  Wall,  to  the  top  of  the  belting,  and  above  the  top  of  the  third-story  win- 
lows,  with  the  corner  Piers  on  each  side,  and  the  Rear  Wan,  from  the  bottom  to  the 
top  of  the  first-story  floorings,  are  to  be  sixteen  inches  thick.  The  remainder  of  the 
Front  and  Rear  Walls,  the  Side  Walls  of  the  main  building,  and  the  Front  Walls  of 
the  Projections,  are  to  be  one  foot  thick.  The  Rear  and  Side  Walls  to  the  Privies,  the 
Side  Wall  to  the  easterly  Projection,  and  the  Walls  of  the  Sesspool,  are  to  be  eight 
inches  thick.  The  Lining  of  the  Vault,  and  the  Walls  between  the  Privies,  are  to  be 
four  inches  thick.  The  Bottom  of  the  Vault  is  to  be  laid  three  courses  thick.  The 
Piers  in  the  cellar  are  to  be  sixteen  inches  square,  on  the  ground. 

The  Vault,  (which  is  to  be  of  the  sesspool  plan,  and  so  arranged,  that  no  solid  matter 
shall  remain  in  the  vault,  but  shall  all  pass  off  into  the  common  sewer,)  Sesspool, 
Drains,  Wall  between  the  privies,  and  the  Hollow  Wall  between  the  privies  and 
main  building,  are  to  be  laid  throughout  with  cement-mortar,  and  plastered  inside, 
throughout,  with  the  same.  The  remainder  of  the  brick-work  is  to  be  done  with  lime- 
mortar.  The  Drains  are  to  be  barrel-form,  the  larger  one  to  be  of  sixteen  inches  bore, 
and  the  smaller  ones,  one  foot.  The  Vaults  are  to  be  not  less  than  six  feet  deep. 

The  Cellar,  and  the  Passage-way  from  the  east  end  of  the  building,  out  to  Margaret 
Avenue,  are  to  be  paved  with  the  best  paving-brick,  on  perfect  foundations  of  gravel 
and  sand. 

The  Cold-air  Flues  are  to  be  twelve  by  eighteen  inches,  inside,  and  the  Smoke  Flues 
eight  inches  square,  inside,  all  smoothly  plastered,  inside  and  out,  with  a  stout  coat  of 
lime-mortar.  The  Flues  are  to  be  arranged  as  shown  in  the  diagram.  [Seep.  182.] 

The  Cold-air  Flue  or  Box,  leading  horizontally  into  the  room  to  the  aperture  under 
the  Stove,  is  also  to  be  thoroughly  and  smoothly  plastered,  and  made  perfectly  secure 
from  danger  by  fire,  in  case  of  live  coals  or  ashes  dropping  into  it  from  the  Stove.  It 
is  to  be  fitted  with  a  valve,  having  a  handle  in  the  room,  to  regulate  the  admission  of 
air. 

Lathing"  and  Plastering: 

All  the  Walls,  Ceilings,  and  Stairways,  throughout  the  first,  second,  and  third 
stories  of  the  main  building  and  the  Projections,  and  the  Ceiling  of  the  Cellar,  are  to 
be  Lathed  and  Plastered  with  a  stout  coat  of  lime  and  hair,  and  hard-finished,  smoothly, 
with  lime  and  sand,  for  painting ;  excepting  the  Ceiling  of  the  Cellar,  which  is  to  be 
finished  on  the  hair-coat,  and  the  Wall  between  the  main  building  and  the  privies, 
which  is  to  be  plastered  upon  the  bricks.  The  Walls  of  the  Cellar  are  to  be  white- 
washed with  three  coats. 

Care  must  be  taken,  that  the  beads  on  the  corners  of  the  walls  and  stairways  an  not 
plastered.  The  quirks  are  to  be  neatly  cut,  and  the  beads  kept  clean. 


PRIMARY    SCHOOL-HOUSE,   BOSTON.  193 

Slates,  Slating,  $-c. 

Smoothly-polished  Slates  are  to  be  set  into  the  back  wall  of  each  Schoolroom,  on 
each  side  of  the  Ventilating  Pier,  and  neatly  finished  around  the  edges.  They  are  tu 
be  two  and  a  half  feet  wide,  and  ten  feet  in  the  whole  length.  They  may  be  in  slabs 
of  five  feet  each,  in  length.* 

The  Roof  is  to  be  Slated  with  the  best  of  Ladies'  Slates,  put  on  with  Composition- 
nails,  and  properly  secured  with  flashings  of  sheet  lead,  weighing  three-and-one-haif- 
pounds  to  the  square  foot,  and  warranted  perfectly  tight  for  two  years. 

Coppering: 

There  are  to  be  moulded  Copper  Gutters,  on  the  front  and  sides  of  the  main  building 
and  front  and  rear  of  the  Projections,  worth  one  dollar  and  twenty-five  cents  per  foot. 
They  are  to  run  back  six  inches  under  the  slates. 

There  are  to  be  two  four-inch-square  Trunks,  from  the  gutters  to  the  water-butts  in 
the  cellar  ;  three-inch  ones  from  the  rear  of  the  Projections  to  the  Vault ;  and  a  round 
one  from  each  butt  to  the  vault.  The  Trunks  are  to  be  made  of  twenty-four-ounce 
cold-rolled  copper,  put  up,  connected  with  the  gutters,  and  led  off  in  a  proper  manner, 
with  suitable  lead  pipes,  of  three  inches  in  diameter. 

Iron-work. 

There  is  to  be  in  each  Smoke  Flue  an  Iron  Casting,  with  a  funnel-hole  twenty-four 
inches  from  the  floor,  and  a  hole  below  for  clearing  out  the  mouth  of  the  flue  ;  each 
hole  to  be  fitted  with  a  tight  stopper. 

There  is  to  be  an  Iron  Fence,  on  the  line  of  Sheafe  street,  across  the  whole  front, 
with  two  Gates,  and  an  Iron  Gate  at  the  entrance  of  the  back  passage,  on  Margaret 
Avenue.  All  the  Gates  are  to  be  fitted  with  Lever  Locks3  and  Latcnes,  of  the  best 
quality,  and  small  duplicate  keys. 

There  is  to  be  an  Iron  Grating  to  each  of  the  cellar-window  curbs,  of  inch-and-a- 
quarter  by  one-quarter-inch  bars,  set  one  inch  from  centre  to  centre  ;  and  wire  netting 
ahove  it  in  front  of  the  windows. 

All  the  Iron- work  is  to  be  painted  with  three  coats  of  lacker. 

There  are  to  be  stout  Iron  Scrapers,  placed  at  each  door,  where  directed  by  the  Com- 
mittee. 

There  are  to  be  an  Iron  Strainer  to  the  Sesspool  Cover  and  Strong  Iron  Rings  to 
the  Moveable  Cover  of  the  Vault. 

There  are  to  be  Composition  Rods,  in  all  the  angles  formed  by  the  meeting  of  the 
ceilings  and  inner  walls,  in  the  Schoolrooms  and  Recitation-rooms,  attached  by  neat 
staples,  and  fitted  with  Moveable  Brass  Rings,  at  suitable  distances,  for  hanging  charts, 
maps,  &c. 

CARPENTERS'  WORK. 

Framing: 

The  Floors  and  Roofs  are  to  be  Framed  in  the  manner  indicated  by  the  Drawings, 
with  gooa  sound  spruce  lumber,  of  the  following  dimensions : 


Principal  Flooring-Joists, 3  by  14  i 

Short  Flooring- Joists, 3    '11 


inches. 


Trimmers  and  Headers, 5 

Partition  Studs, 2 

Privy-Floor  Joists, 2 

Attic-Floor  Joists, 2 

Ties  to  Roof  Trusses, 7 

Rafters  to  Trusses 7 

Collars, 7 

Purlins,     8 

Wall  Plates,     3 

Small  Rafters,     3 


The  Flooring-Joists  are  to  be  worked  to  a  mould,  crowning  one  inch.  They  are  to 
nave  a  fair  bearing  of  four  inches  on  the  walls,  at  each  end,  and  to  be  bridged  with 
two  lines  of  Cross  Bridging. 

The  Trusses  in  the  Roof  are  to  be  fitted  with  Wrought-iron  Bolts,  one  inch  in 
diameter,  with  Heads,  perfect  Screws,  and  large  Washers  and  Nuts. 

*  These  larse  Slates  may  be  procured  in  Boston,  and  cost  no  more  than  good  Blackboards. 
When  it  is  not  convenient  to  obtain  them,  the  walls,  where  Blackboards  are  needed,  may  be 
adapted  to  the  purpose,  by  mixing  the  Plastering  or  Hard-finish  with  Lampblack,  rubbing  it  down 
smoothly,  and  allowing  it  to  become  perfectly  dry  and  hard  before  it  is  used  Or,  Blackboard 
may  be  covered  with  the  composition  mentioned  on  p.  197. 

13 


194  SCHOOL   ARCHITECTURE. 

Thu  Floor-Joists  are  to  be  framed  into  the  Trimmers,  and  the  Ceiling- Joists  of  the 
third  story  into  the  Ties  of  the  Roof- Trusses,  with  Tusk-Tenons,  and  properly  secured 
with  hard- wood  Pins. 

All  the  Partitions  in  the  main  building  are  to  be  set  with  two-by-four-inch  plank 
Studs,  so  as  to  give  five  nailings  to  a  lath,  thoroughly  bridged  throughout,  and  trussed 
over  the  openings. 

There  is  to  be  a  Lintel,  four  by  eight  inches,  over  each  window,  and  other  opening 
in  the  walls  that  requires  it,  and  under  the  withs  of  the  Privies,  with  a  fair  bearing 
of  eight  inches  at  each  end. 

Enclosing". 

The  Under-Floors  of  the  Rooms,  Entries,  Passages,  Platforms,  and  Privies,  in  each 
story,  and  the  Floor  of  the  Attic,  are  to  be  laid  witlTNo.  3  Pine  boards,  planed,  jointed, 
laid  close,  and  thoroughly  nailed.  The  Roofs  are  to  be  covered  with  Matched  boards, 
of  the  same  quality,  and  thoroughly  nailed. 

Furring. 

All  the  Walls,  throughout,  (excepting  the  cellar  walls,  the  back  walls  of  the  several 
privies,  and  the  side  walls  of  the  privies  next  to  the  main  building,)  and  all  the  Ceil- 
ings, Entries,  and  Stairways,  are  to  be  Furred  with  three-inch  Furrings  of  sound,  sea- 
soned, dry  No.  3  Pine  boards,  spaced  so  as  to  give  five  nailings  to  a  lath.  They  are 
to  be  put  on  the  walls  with  twelve-penny  nails,  and  on  the  ceilings  with  ten-pennies. 

Grounds,  three-fourths  of  an  inch  thick,  are  to  be  put  up  for  all  the  finish,  and  three- 
quarter-inch  Beads  on  all  the  angles  and  corners  of  the  walls  and  stairways.  The 
Beads  are  to  be  kept  clean. 

There  are  to  be  two  Strips  of  Furring  put  up,  (for  convenience  in  driving  nails  for 
hanging  charts,  &c.,)  extending  entirely  around  the  Schoolrooms,  at  distances  of  three 
and  eight  inches  from  the  ceilings  ;  and  also  similar  Strips  for  the  same  purpose,  set 
perpendicularly,  on  the  rear  and  sidewalls,  as  directed  by  the  Committee.  Also,  Com- 
position Rods,  in  the  angles  of  the  ceiling,  all  round  the  rooms,  with  Moveable  Rings  at 
suitable  distances,  for  picture  lines. 

Cold-air  Boxes,  and  Ventiducts. 

The  Cold  Air  is  to  be  taken  in  at  one  of  the  cellar-window  openings,  which  is  to  be 
finished  outside  with  a  plank  frame  and  coarse  iron-wire  netting. 

The  Air  is  to  be  conducted  into  the  Brick  Cold-air  Flue  of  each  Schoolroom,  in 
separate  Boxes,  each  twelve  by  eighteen  inches,  inside,  made  of  thoroughly-seasoned 
Pine  boards,  smoothed  on  the  inside,  and  put  together  with  two-inch  screws. 

The  Ventiducts,  or  Ventilating-Flues,  are  also  to  be  made  of  thoroughly-seasoned  Pine 
boards,  smoothed  on  the  inside,  and  put  together  with  two-inch  screws.  There  is  to 
be  a  separate  one  for  each  Schoolroom,  and  the  Privies,  and  each  is  to  be  fitted  with 
two  Swivel-blind  Openings,  or  Registers,  one  at  the  floor  and  the  other  at  the  ceil- 
ing, with  Stay-rods  to  regulate  them,  as  may  be  directed  by  the  Committee. 

There  are  to  be  two  Closets  on  each  side  of  this  Pier,  in  the  first  story,  and  on  one 
side,  in  the  second  story,  as  shown  in  the  diagram,  on  p.  183. 

The  Ventiducts,  or  Ventilating-Flues,  for  the  Schoolrooms,  are  each  to  be  sixteen 
inches  square,  inside  ;  that  for  the  Privies  is  to  be  ten  inches  square,  inside.  The 
Swivel-blind  Openings  in  the  Schoolrooms  are  to  be  sixteen  by  twenty-four  inches  ; 
and  those  in  the  Privies  are  to  be  ten  inches  square. 

The  Ventiducts,  or  Ventilating-Flues,  for  the  Schoolrooms,  are  to  be  brought  together 
in  the  attic,  and  connected  with  the  Ventilator  on  the  main  Roof. 

The  Ventiduct,  or  Ventilating-Shaft,  for  the  Privies,  is  to  be  ten  inches  square,  and 
carried  down  to  within  one  foot  of  the  surface  of  the  water  in  the  Vault  or  Sesspool ; 
and  the  air  from  this  Shaft,  and  also  from  the  space  between  the  privies  and  the  main 
building,  is  to  be  conducted  in  a  tight  box  over  the  ceilings  of  the  third-story  privies 
to  the  Ventilator  on  the  ridge. 

Windows  and  Blinds. 

All  the  Windows,  (excepting  those  in  the  cellar,)  are  to  have  Double  Box  Frames, 
with  two-inch  pine  plank  Sills  and  Yokes,  inch  inside  and  outside  Casings,  one-and- 
one-fourth-inch  hard-pine  Pulley-styles,  five-eighths-of-an-ineh  Inside  Beads,  and  five- 
sixteenths- of-an-inch  Parting  Beads. 

The  Sashes  are  to  be  made  of  pine,  one-and-three-fourths-inch  thick,  moulded  and 
coped.  They  are  all  to  be  double  hung  with  the  best  White  Window  Lines,  Iron 
Pulleys  with  steel  axles,  and  Round  Iron  Counter-weights.  All  the  Sashes  are  to  be 
fastened  with  strong  Bronzed  Sash-fastenings,  of  the  best  quality,  to  cost  five  dollars 
and  fifty  cents  per  dozen. 


PRIMARY    SCHOOL-HOUSE,    BOSTON.  195 

All  the  Windows  in  the  first  and  second  stories  are  to  be  fitted  with  one-and-one- 
fourth-inch  Framed  Blink,  two  parts  to  each  window,  hung  in  light  Box-frames,  with 
Weights,  Lines,  and  Pulleys,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  sashes,  excepting  that  they 
are  to  run  up  above  the  tops  of  the  windows,  in  close  boxes,  and  to  have  satisfac- 
tory Knobs,  Rings,  or  Handles,  on  the  bottom  rails,  to  draw  them  down. 

rriie  Windows  in  the  third  story  are  to  have  Inside  Shutter-Blinds,  one  inch  thick, 
made  in  eight  parts  to  each  window,  hung  with  Iron  Butt-hinges,  and  fitted  with 
Bronzed  Hooks  and  Staples,  and  Rosewood  Knobs. 

The  Openings  in  the  Rear  Wall  of  the  Privies  are  to  have  Stationary  Blinds,  four 
inches  thick,  and  reaching  to  the  floors.  The  Windows  in  the  Front  Wall  are  to  have 
Outside  Blinds,  one-aud-three-fourths-inch  thick,  hung  and  fastened  in  the  usual 
manner. 

All  the  Windows,  and  the  Openings  in  the  Privy- Walls,  are  to  be  finished  with  one- 
aud-oue-fourth-inch  moulded  Architraves,  with  turned  Corner-blocks.  [Care  to  be 
taken  to  have  no  Architraves  or  Corner-blocks  omitted  on  one  side,  or  cut  partly  off.] 
Those  in  the  firs*  story  are  to  have  panel  Jambs,  and  Soffits  and  Stools.  Those  in  the 
second  story,  and  all  the  Openings  in  the  Privies,  are  to  have  Edge  and  Sill  Casings. 
Those  in  the  third  story  are  to  have  Elbows  to  the  Shutter-boxes,  moulded  panel  Sof- 
fits, and  wide  Stools. 

The  Cellar-Windows  are  to  be  made  with  plank  Frames,  rabbeted  for  the  sashes  ; 
and  are  to  have  Single  Sashes,  hung  with  Iron  Butt-hinges  to  the  tops  of  the  frames, 
fastened  with  strong  Iron  Buttons,  and  fitted  with  Catches  to  bold  them  open  when 
desired. 

There  is  to  be  a  Single  Stationary  Sash  over  each  Entrance-door,  made  in  six  lights. 

There  are  to  be  two  Skylights  in  the  Roof,  which  are  to  be  made  and  hung  in  a  neat 
and  substantial  manner,  and  properly  fitted  to  rise  and  fasten. 

There  is  to  be  a  Scuttle,  in  the  ceiling  of  the  third  story,  made,  cased,  and  hung,  in 
i  neat  and  substantial  manner. 

Doors. 

All  the  Doors,  throughout,  (excepting  the  Outside  ones,  which  are  to  be  two-and- 
<rae-fourth-inches  thick,  and  the  Closet  doors,  which  are  to  be  one-and-one-fourth- 
inch  thick,)  are  to  be  two  inches  thick,  made  in  four  moulded  Panels  each,  hung  with 
three  four-inch  iron  Butt-hinges,  and  fastened  (excepting  the  outside  ones)  with  Rob- 
inson's best  S2.50  Mortise  Locks,  with  Catches  and  Bolts,  Rosewood  Knobs,  Bronzed 
Trimmings,  and  small  duplicate  Keys  to  each.  The  Outside  Doors  are  to  be  fastened 
with  double-bolt  Lever  Locks  of  the  best  quality,  having  duplicate  keys  as  small  as 
practicable.  The  Privy  Doors  are  to  have  strong  Door-springs,  in  addition  to  the  other 
trimmings. 

All  the  Inside  Doors,  excepting  those  to  the  closets,  are  to  be  finished  with  hard- 
pine  Sills,  two-inch  rabbeted  and  beaded  Frames,  and  Architraves  as  described  for 
the  Windows,  with  Plinths.  The  doors,  in  every  case,  to  be  set  so  far  from  the  walls, 
as  to  give  the  full  Architraves  and  Corner-blocks  on  both  sides. 

The  Outside  Doors  are  to  be  hung  to  three-inch  plank  Frames,  properly  dogged  to 
the  thresholds  and  wall,  and  finished  inside  like  the  Inside  Doors. 

The  Entrance  and  Cellar  Doors  are  to  be  four  feet  by  seven  feet  eight  inches.  The 
Inside  Doors  are  to  be  three  feet  by  seven  feet  four  inches.  The  Privy  Doors  are  to  be 
two  feet  six  inches,  by  seven  feet  four  inches. 

Stairs. 

The  Stairs  are  to  be  framed  with  deep  plank  Stringers  and  Winders,  as  shown  by 
the  Drawings.  They  are  to  be  finished  with  hard-pine  Risers,  one  inch  thick,  Treads 
one-and-one-fourth-inch  thick,  and  Balusters  one-and-one-eighth-inch  diameter.  The 
String  and  Gallery  finish  is  to  be  of  white  pine,  and  the  Posts,  Newels,  and  Rails,  of 
cherry.  The  bottom  Posts  are  to  be  seven  inches  in  diameter,  turned,  and  the  Rails 
three  "inches  wide.  The  Rails  are  to  be  not  less  than  three  feet  high,  measuring  from 
the  nosing  of  the  Steps. 

There  are  to  be  two  Flights  of  Stairs  to  the  Cellar,  framed  with  plank  Stringers  and 
Winders,  and  finished  with  planed  pine  Risers  and  Treads,  and  close  Partitions  one- 
and-oiie-half-inch  thick,  matched  and  planed. 

There  is  to  be  a  neat  Flight  of  Portable  Steps,  to  ascend  from  the  third  story  to  the 
Attic,  and  others  to  ascend  from  the  Attic  to  the  Skylight  in  the  Roof. 

Skirting: 

The  Rooms,  Entries,  Stairways,  and  Privies,  are  to  be  Skirted  up  as  high  as  the 
window  stools,  in  the  respective  stories,  (except  on  the  back  sides  of  the  Rooms,)  with 
norrow  matched  beaded  Lining,  not  to  exceed  seven  inches  in  width,  Capped  to  cor- 
respond with  the  nosing  of  the  window  stools.  The  Lining  is  to  be  gauged  to  a 


196  SCHOOL   ARCHITECTURE. 

width,  and  set  perpendicularly.  That  on  the  back  Wall  is  to  be  fitted  to  the  Slates  in 
that  wall,  which  are  to  rest  on  the  Capping.  That  in  the  fjpt  story  is  to  be  of  cherry- 
wood,  the  second  story  of  maple,  and  the  third  story  of  white-pine,  wrought  and  fin. 
ished  smoothly,  suitable  for  being  stained  and  varnished  without  painting. 

Flooring's,  fyc. 

The  Platforms  are  to  be  furred  up,  as  shown  by  the  Drawings,  and  the  Stairways, 
Platforms,  and  Hearths,  are  to  be  bordered,  and  the  Floors  to  be  laid,  with  narrow 
hard-pine  floorings,  perfectly  jointed  and  thoroughly  nailed.  The  Strips  are  to  be 
gauged  to  a  width  respectively  in  the  schoolrooms,  and  the  joints  are  to  be  broken,  at 
least  three  feet,  so  that  no  two  strips  of  different  widths  will  but  on  to  each  other. 

Cabinets,  Closets,  Clothes-Hooks,  fyc. 

There  are  to  be  two  Cabinets,  in  each  Schoolroom,  between  the  windows,  above  the 
skirting,  and  as  high  as  the  windows,  with  double  cherry  Sash-doors,  each  hung  with 
three  Brass  Hinges,  fastened  with  Thumb-catches  and  Locks,  and  fitted  with  Rosewood 
Knobs.  There  are  to  be  twelve  Shelves  in  each,  and  immediately  below  them  are  to 
be  small  Closets,  with  four  Shelves  in  each,  and  double  Doors,  hung  and  fastened  in 
the  same  manner  as  the  sash  doors.  The  shelves  are  to  be  placed  as  directed  by  the 
Committee.  Six  of  them  are  to  be  inclined,  with  two  narrow  ledges  on  each. 

There  are  to  be  two  Closets  in  each  side  of  the  Ventilating  Pier,  in  the  First  Story, 
and  two  in  one  side  in  the  Second  Story,  as  shown  at  o  o,  in  the  diagram  on  page  183. 
Each  Closet  is  to  be  fitted  with  three  shelves,  and  the  doors  are  to  be  hung  and  fastened 
in  the  same  manner  as  the  Closets  under  the  Cabinets. 

There  is  to  be  for  each  Schoolroom,  where  directed  by  the  Committee,  a  Press- 
closet,  having  three  Shelves  on  one  side,  with  six  brass  double  Hat-and-Coat-Hooks, 
on  beaded  cherry-wood  cleats  ;  the  Door  to  be  neatly  hung,  fastened,  and  trimmed, 
similar  to  the  otner  doors. 

There  is  to  be  in  the  entry  of  each  Schoolroom,  where  directed  by  the  Committee,  a 
Closet,  for  brushes,  brooms,  coal-hod,  &c.,  two  by  three-and-one-half  feet,  made  with 
matched  boards,  and  fitted  with  three  Shelves  on  one  side,  and  eight  Hooks  on  the 
other  side  and  back.  The  Door  is  to  be  made,  hung,  and  fastened,  to  correspond  with 
the  other  doors. 

There  is  to  be  a  Sink,  attached  to  each  Schoolroom,  where  directed  by  the  Commit- 
tee, made  of  two-inch  pine  plank,  the  top  hung  with  stout  hinges,  and  with  Drawers  and 
Cupboards  below.  It  is  to  be  fitted  with  a  Composition  Sesspool,  lined  with  zinc,  and 
a  lead  Waste-pipe,  leading  to  the  vault.  Suitable  Pipes,  to  lead  the  City  water  into 
the  sink  in  each  story,  are  to  be  provided. 

There  is  to  be  a  Dumb-waiter  from  the  cellar  to  the  third  story,  opening  into  each 
story,  for  raising  coals,  wood,  &c. 

There  are  to  be  seventy  extra-stout  iron  double  Hat-and-Coat-Hooks,  to  each  School- 
room, put  up  on  beaded  cherry-wood  Cleats,  as  directed  by  the  Committee. 

There  are  to  be  two  Umbrella-stands,  in  each  Entry,  to  hold  six  umbrellas  each. 

Coal-Bins,  fyc. 

There  are  to  be  three  Coal-Bins  in  the  Cellar,  each  capable  of  holding  three  tons  of 
Coal,  having  Covers  hung  with  strong  wrought-iron  Hinges,  and  sliding  Gates,  with 
boxings  around  them  to  keep  the  Coal  from  the  floor.  Also,  three  Closets  for  Kin- 
dlings, the  doo^s  to  be  hung  with  iron  Strap-hinges,  and  fastened  with  iron  Buttons. 

There  are  also  to  be  in  the  Cellar,  two  large  iron-bound  W7ater-butts,  with  metal 
Faucets. 

Privy-  Finish. 

The  Privies  are  to  be  fitted  with  pine  Risers,  Seats,  and  Covers.  The  Covers  are 
to  be  hung  with  stout  Duck,  or  India-rubber  cloth,  instead  of  metal  Hinges  ;  the 
edges  of  the  cloth  to  be  covered  with  narrow  slats.  They  are  to  be  so  arranged,  that 
they  will  fall  of  themselves  when  left.  There  is  to  be  a  Box  for  paper  in  each  Privy, 
and  the  Boys'  Privies  are  to  have  Troughs,  lined  with  zinc,  with  Sesspools.  The 
whole  finish  of  the  Privies  is  to  be  equal  to  that  of  the  other  parts  of  the  building. 

Painting: 

All  the  Hard-wood  Finish,  (except  the  Skirting  of  the  first  and  second  stories,  which 
is  to  be  varnished,)  is  to  be  oiled,  with  two  coats  of  boiled  Linseed-oil,  well  rubbed  in 
with  cloth. 

All  the  Outside  wood-work,  the  Copper-trunks,  and  the  inner  walls  throughout,  are 
to  be  prepared  and  painted  with  three  coats  of  Oil-and-Lead  paint,  of  such  color  as  the 
Committee  may  direct.  The  Outside-doors  are  to  be  painted  Bronze. 


PRIMARY    SCHOOL-HOUSE,    BOSTON.  197 

The  Insides  of  the  Closets  and  Cabinets  are  to  be  painted  white,  and  the  Teachers1 
Platforms  in  imitation  of  Marble.  The  Blinds  are  to  be  painted  with  four  coats  of 
Paris  Green,  and  Varnished.  The  third-story  skirting  is  to  be  stained  with  asphal- 
tum,  and  varnished.  The  rest  of  the  Inside  Pine  Finish  is  to  be  Putty-stopped,  Primed, 
and  Painted  and  Grained,  in  imitation  of  Oak,  Maple,  or  other  color,  as  directed  by 
the  Committee,  and  Varnished. 

All  the  Painting  and  Varnishing  is  to  be  equal  to  that  of  first-class  dwelling-houses. 

Glazing. 

All  the  Sashes,  throughout,  are  to  be  glazed  with  Crystal  Sheet  Glass,  of  double 
thickness,  and  of  the  best  quality.  Each  light  is  to  be  properly  Bedded,  Sprigged, 
and  Back-Puttied. 

The  Windows  are  to  have  Lights  of  the  following  dimensions,  as  shown  in  the 
Drawings : 

First  Story,  Front  Windows,  eighteen  Lights,  each  eleven  by  fourteen  inches.  First 
Story,  Rear  "Window,  twelve  Lights,  each  eleven  by  sixteen  inches.  That  in  the  west 
wall,  eight  Lights,  each  eleven  by  sixteen  inches. 

Second  Story,  Front  Windows,  eighteen  Lights,  each  eleven  by  fourteen  inches. 
Second  Story,  Hear  Windows,  eight  and  twelve~Lights,  each  eleven  by  sixteen  inches. 
Front  Window  in  easterly  Projection,  twelve  Lights,  each  eleven  by  fourteen  inches. 

Third  Story,  Front  Windows,  twelve  Lights,  each  eleven  by  nineteen  inches.  Third 
Story,  Rear  Windows,  eight  and  twelve  Lights,  each  eleven  "by  fifteen  inches.  Front 
Windows  in  easterly  Projection,  eight  Lights,  each  eleven  by  nineteen  inches. 

The  Cellar  Windows,  eight  Lights,  each  eight  by  ten  inches. 

The  Sashes  over  the  Doors,  each  six  Lights. 

The  Skylights  are  to  be  two  feet  six  inches  by  three  feet  six  inches. 

Ventilators. 

There  are  to  be  two  of  Emerson's  Patent  Ventilators,  of  galvanized  iron  ;  one  on 
the  Roof  of  the  Main  Building,  twenty-five  inches  in  diameter,  and  another  on  the 
Roof  of  the  Privies,  twelve  inches  in  diameter. 

Furniture. 

Each  Schoolroom  is  to  be  furnished  with  sixty  Small  Arm-Chairs,  of  Mr.  IXGRA- 
HAM'S  pattern,  such  as  are  used  in  the  other  Primary  Schools  in  the  City.*  Also,  with 
a  Table,  for  the  Teacher's  Platform,  four  feet  by  two,  (made  of  Mahogany,  Black  Wal- 
nut, or  Cherry- wood,  as  directed  by  the  Committee,)  furnished  with  two  "Drawers,  and 
fitted  with  Locks,  Keys,  and  Rosewood  Knobs,  of  the  best  quality. 

Memorandum. 

No  bricks,  stone,  lumber,  or  other  building-materials,  of  any  description,  are  to  be 
placed  on  the  garden- plat ;  and  the  Trees  and  Garden  are  to  "have  a  rough  box  built 
around  them,  for  their  preservation  from  injury.  No  lines  are  to  be  fastened  to  the 
Trees,  for  any  purpose  whatever. 

All  the  Lumber  is  to  be  well  and  thoroughly  seasoned  ;  and  all  that  is  in  sight  is  to 
be  free  from  Shakes,  Sap,  and  Knots  ;  and  that  and  every  part  of  the  work  is  to  be  equal 
to  any  used  in  first-class  dwelling-houses. 

MR.  IXGRAHAM'S  COMPOSITION  FOR  BLACKBOARDS. 

Lampblack  and  Flour  of  Emery,  mixed  with  Spirit- Varnish. 

No  more  Lampblack  and  Flour"  of  Emery  should  be  used,  than  are  sufficient  to  give 
the  required  black  and  abrading  surface  ;  and  the  Varnish  should  contain  only  sufficient 
gum  to  hold  the  ingredients  together,  and  confine  the  Composition  to  the  Board.  The 
thinner  the  mixture,  the  better. 

The  Lampblack  should  first  be  ground  with  a  small  quantity  of  Alcohol,  or  Spirit- 
Varnish,  to  free  it  from  lumps. 

The  Composition  should  be  applied  to  the  smoothly-planed  surface  of  a  Board,  with 
a  common  painter's  brush.  Let  it  become  thoroughly  dry  and  hard  before  it  is  used. 
R;ih  it  down  with  pumice-stone,  or  a  piece  of  smooth  wood  covered  with  the  Compo- 
sition. 

Boards  prepared  in  this  way  are  almost  equal  to  Slates,  and  will  last  for  years  ;  and 
they  can  be  used  with  slate-pencils,  which  are  much  better  than  crayons  or  chalk,  on 
account  of  their  freedom  from  dust  and  dirt.  Crayon  or  chalk  dust  is  deleterious  to 
health,  as  well  as  to  cleanliness. 

This  Composition  may  also  be  used  on  the  walls. 

*  See  pp.          anil  151, 


198 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


PLANS,  &c.,  OF  BRIMMER  GRAMMAR  SCHOOL,  BOSTON. 

This  building  was  erected  in  1843.  It  is  situated  on  Common-street,  near 
Washington.  It  is  74  ieet  in  length  on  the  street,  by  52  feet  deep,  with 
three  stories.  The  entrance  is  in  the  center  of  the  front  into  a  hall  8  feet 
wide,  leading  through  into  the  yard  in  the  rear,  which  is  divided  by  a  wall 
into  three  portions.  The  passage  to  the  second  and  third  floors  is  by  a  double 
flight  of  stairs  near  the  front  door. 

The  first  floor  is  occupied  by  two  Primary  School-rooms,  each  30  by  22 
feet,  and  11  feet  high  ;  and  the  Ward-room,  30  by  50  feet. 

The  school-room  on  the  second  floor  is  70  feet  by  37  feet  wide,  and  14  feet 
6  inches  high  between  the  bays.  The  ceiling  is  plastered  up  between  the 
bays,  (cross  timbers)  by  which  eighteen  inches  are  grained  in  height,  dividing 
the  ceiling  into  equal  compartments.  There  are  two  recitation  rooms,  one 


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on  each  side  the  entrance,  17  feet  6  inches,  by  11  feet  4  inches  each,  with 
two  windows  in  each  room,  and  benches  on  all  the  sides  for  the  pupils.  The 
school-room  is  lighted  on  three  sides,  and  contains  118  desks,  and  236  chairs, 
two  chairs  to  each  desk,  the  desks  and  chairs  being  of  four  sizes.  The  tops 
of  the  desks  are  cherry  wood,  and  the  chairs  are  Wales'  patent.  The  desks 
are  separated  by  aisles  one  foot  four  inches  in  width,  except  the  center  aisle, 
which  is  two  feet  wide. 

The  aisles  on  the  side  nearest  the  recitation-rooms,  are  three  feet  wide, 
and  those  at  each  end,  2  feet  6  inches  each.  The  platform  on  which  are 
the  desks  of  the  master  and  assistants,  is  eight  inches  high,  and  6  feet  6 


BRIMMER  GRAMMAR  SCHOOL-HOUSE,  BOSTON. 


199 


inches  wide,  and  the  desks  are  so  placed  that  the  pupils  sit  with  their  backs 
to  the  platform;  and  the  pupils  are  so  arranged  at  the  desks  in  classes  and 
sections,  that  when  one  class  is  reciting,  the  desk  is  only  occupied  by  one 
pupil.  The  windows  are  shaded  by  inside  blinds  painted  green. 

The  school-room  on  the  third  floor  is  of  the  same  size,  having  an  arched 
ceiling  13  feet  high  in  the  center,  with  recitation-rooms  and  other  arrange- 
ments similar  to  the  school-room  on  the  second  floor. 

The  building  is  warmed  by  two  furnaces,  and  ventilated  by  six  flues,  dis- 
charging into  the  attic,  from  which  the  impure  air  is  carried  off  by  copper 
ventilators  in  the  roof.  The  openings  into  the  flues  in  the  school-rooms  are 
controlled  by  Preston's  ventilators. 

The  frame  of  Preston's  Ventilator  is  made  of  a  flat  bar  of  iron  2|  by  4- 
inch,  framed  at  the  corners,  the  end  at  each  corner  running  by  in  order  t. 
receive  a  clamp  to  screw  the  frame  to  the  brick  work ;  the  door  is  of  plate 
iron,  (yg-  wire  gage),  with  a  rod  passing  down  the  center  of  the  plate,  on  the 
back  side,  eacli  end  of  the  rod  running  by  the  plate  and  entering  the  frame, 
forming  a  pivot  on  which  the  plate  or  door  of  the  ventilator  turns.  The 
door  shuts  against  a  projection  in  the  frame. 


The  Brimmer  school  has  two  masters,  one  in  each  room,  and  each  with 
an  usher  and  female  assistant. 

[Since  the  above  description  was  first  published,  (in  1843)  the  seats  and 
desks  have  been  reversed,  so  that  the  pupils  sit  with  their  faces  to  the  plat- 
form- The  former  method  was  found  by  the  teacher  to  be  "  very  incon- 
venient, and  wholly  impracticable.  The  scholar  should  see  the  face  and 
hear  the  voice  of  the  Principal  as  much  as  possible."] 


200  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


PLAN  AND  DESCRIPTION  OF  BOWDOIN  GRAMMAR  SCHOOL-HOUSE. 

The  new  Bowdoin  School-house,  completed  in  1848,  is  situated  on  Myrtle 
street,  and  with  the  yard  occupies  an  area  of  about  75  feet  by  68  feet,  bounded 
on  each  of  the  four  sides  by  a  street.  It  is  built  of  brick  with  a  basement  story 
of  hammered  granite,  and  measures  75  feet  9  inches  extreme  length  by  54  feet  6 
inches  extreme  breadth — having  three  stories,  the  first  and  second  being  13  feet, 
and  the  third,  15  feet  high  in  the  clear.  The  ground  descends  rapidly  from 
Myrtle  street,  thereby  securing  a  basement  of  15  feet  in  the  rear.  One  third  of 
which  is  finished  into  entries,  or  occupied  by  three  furnaces,  coal  bins,  pumps, 
&c.,  and  the  remaining  two  thirds  is  open  to  the  yard,  thereby  affording  a  cov- 
ered play-ground  for  the  pupils. 

The  third  story  is  finished  into  one  hall  72  feet  long  by  38  feet  wide,  with  seats 
and  desks  for  180  pupils.  On  the  south  side  of  this  hall  there  are  two  recita- 
tion rooms,  each  16  feet  by  12  feet,  and  a  room  for  a  library,  &c.  There  are 
three  rooms  of  the  same  size  on  the  two  floors  below. 

The  second  story  is  divided  into  two  rooms  by  a  partition  wall,  each  of  which 
is  35  feet  by  38,  and  accommodates  90  pupils,  and  so  connected  by  sliding  doors 
that  all  the  pupils  of  both  schools  can  be  brought  under  the  eye  and  voice  of  the 
teacher. 

The  first  story  corresponds  to  the  second,  except  there  are  no  sliding  doors  in 
the  partition,  and  no  connection  between  the  room  except  through  the  front 
entry.  The  two  rooms  on  this  floor  have  each  seats  and  desks  for  100  pupils. 

Each  story  is  thoroughly  ventilated,  and  warmed  by  one  of  Chilson's  Fur- 
naces. In  each  furnace  the  air  chambers,  the  apertures  for  conducting  the  cold 
air  into  them,  and  the  flues  for  constructing  the  heated  air  into  the  rooms  in 
each  story,  being  all  large,  a  great  quantity  of  warm  air  is  constantly  rushing 
into  the  rooms,  and  the  ventilating  flues  or  ventiducts  being  so  constructed  anc 
arranged  that  the  air  of  the  rooms  will  be  frequently  changed,  and  that  a  pure 
and  healthy  atmosphere  will  at  all  times  be  found  in  each  of  these  rooms,  pro- 
vided the  furnaces  are  properly  and  judiciously  managed.  On  the  top  of  the 
building  there  are  two  of  Emerson's  large  ventilators,  connected  with  the  attic 
and  ventilating  flues,  through  which  the  impure  air  passes  out  into  the  atmos- 
phere above. 

To  accommodate  pupils  who  come  to  school  with  wet  feet  or  clothes,  there 
is  an  open  fire  in  a  grate  in  one  of  the  recitation  rooms. 

Each  room  is  furnished  with  Wales'  American  School  Chair,  and  Ross's  Desk, 
and  both  desk  and  chair  are  in  material,  form  and  style,  as  described  on  page 
202  and  205. 

This  is  a  school  for  girls  only,  and  consists  of  two  departments,  one  of  which 
is  called  the  Grammar  department,  and  the  other  the  Writing  department;  the 
master  of  each  department  being  independent  of  the  other. 

The  number  of  assistant  female  teachers  in  each  department  of  this  school, 
when  full,  will  be  four,  the  teachers  in  each  department  being  independent  of 
the  master  and  teacher  in  the  other. 

The  master  of  the  Grammar  department  and  two  of  his  assistants  will  occupy 
the  large  hall  in  the  third  story,  and  his  other  two  assistants  will  occupy  one  of 
the  rooms  in  the  first  story. 

The  master  of  the  writing  department  and  two  of  his  assistants  will  occupy 
the  rooms  in  the  second  story,  and  his  other  two  assistants  will  occupy  the 
other  room  in  the  first  story,  each  master  being  the  superintendence  of  his  own 
department. 

The  school,  when  full,  will  be  divided  into  five  classes,  and  each  class  into 
two  divisions,  nearly  equal  in  numbers.  The  first  week  after  the  vacation  in 
August,  the  first  division  of  each  class  will  attend  in  the  grammar  department 
in  the  morning,  and  the  second  division  of  each  class  will  attend  in  the  writing 
department ;  and  in  the  afternoon,  the  second  division  of  each  class  will  attend 
in  the  grammar  department,  and  the  first,  in  the  writing  department.  The  next 
week,  this  order  of  attendance  is  to  be  reversed,  and  this  alteration  is  to  con- 
tinue through  the  year,  the  weeks  of  vacation  not  being  counted. 

This  house  and  the  Gluincy  Grammar  School-house  are  built  after  designs  by 
Mr.  Bryant. 


BOWDOIN  GRAMMAR  SCHOOL-HOUSE. 
PLAN  OF  FIRST  AND  SECOND  FLOOR. 


201 


A,  A,  Entrance  for  Pupils. 

B,  Ditto  for  Teacher. 

C,  C,  Study  halls,  each  35  by  38  feet ; 
with  seats  and  desks  for  100  pupils. 

D,  Sliding    door,    by  which  the  two 
rooms  on  the  second  floor  are  thrown 
into  one. 

E,  Study  hall,  72  feet  by  38. 

F,  F,  Two  recitation  rooms  on  each 
floor,  16  feet  by  12. 

G,  Room  10  feet  by  12,  for  library,  ap- 
paratus, &cc. 


H,  Ross'  desk,  and  Wales'  chair. 

P,  Teacher's  platform  with  desk  for 
teacher  and  assistants. 

S,  S,  Staircase  leading  to  second  anc 
third  floors. 

a,  Case  with  glass  doors  for  appara- 
tus. 

c,  Closet  for  Teacher. 

<7,  Grate. 

r,  Hot  air  register. 


PLAN  OP  THIRD  FLOOR, 


202  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


PLAN  AND  DESCRIPTION  OF  QJJINCY  GRAMMAR.  SCHOOL-HOUSE, 

BOSTON. 

This  building,  which  was  commenced  in  1847,  and  dedicated  on  the  26th  of 
June,  1848,  is  situated  on  a  lot  90  feet  by  130  feet,  extending  from  Tyler  street 
to  Hudson  street. 

The  ground  plan  is  in  the  form  of  a  cross,  the  exterior  dimensions  of  the  body 
being  80  feet  by  58  feet,  the  end  fronting  on  Tyler  street.  The  wings  are  12 
feet  in  front  by  3G  feet  deep.  It  is  four  siories  high,  with  a  basement  8  feet  in 
the  clear,  for  the  furnaces  and  fuel,  and  an  attic  ibr  gymnastic  exercises. 

Each  wing  coniains  a  front  and  back  entrance,  a  flight  of  stairs  from  the 
basement  to  the  attic,  and  a  room  on  each  floor  10  feet  by  11  feet,  connected 
with  a  school-room. 

The  fourth  story  of  the  body  is  finished  in  one  spacious  hall,  16  feet  high  in 
the  clear,  with  centre-pieces  and  a  cornice,  and  a  platform  at  each  end  '22  feet 
by  11  feet,  arid  22  inches  high.  It  is  furnished  wilh  settees  arranged  in  4  rows, 
sufficient  to  accommodate  700  children. 

The  third  floor  is  divided  by  a  corridor  8  feet  wide,  extending  across  the  main 
body  from  one  wing  to  the  other,  having  2  school-rooms  on  each  side. 

These  four  school-rooms  are  of  nearly  the  same  size,  averaging  about 
3H  feet  by  26;  feet,  and  13  feet  high.  Each  room  is  lighted  by  2  windows  at 
the  side,  and  2  at  the  end,  and  has  a  platform  for  the  teacher  2-1  feel  by  about  5i, 
with  one  end  towards  the  entrance  from  the  corridor,  and  on  the  other  end  is 
placed  a  book-case  of  cherry,  3;V  feet  by  8  feet,  with  glazed  doors,  facing  the 
entrance. 

The  scholars'  desks  front  the  platform  and  the  windows  on  the  side  of  the 
building,  and  are  separated  by  aisles  1  foot  and  4  inches  wide.  They  are  2  feet 
in  length,  made  of  cherry-wood,  and  varnished  and  supported  by  cast  iron 
stands.  J.  L.  Ross,  maker.  Each  scholar  has  a  desk  by  himself. 

The  chair  is  made  by  Mr.  Wales,  of  Boston.  It  has  a  scroll  back  and  cast 
iron  support. 

Each  room  accommodates  56  pupils,  one  desk  and  chair  being  placed  on  a 
small  movable  platform  for  a  monitor. 

The  rooms  are  lined  with  composition  blackboards  3i  feet  wide,  2  feet  from 
the  floor. 

The  school-rooms  which  have  not  small  rooms  attached,  are  provided  with 
closets  for  the  children's  clothes.  There  are  2  sinks  in  the  corridor,  with  con- 
veniences for  introducing  Cochituate  water.  The  description  of  this  story  will 
answer  for  the  two  below  it,  as  the  first  three  are  essentially  the  same. 

The  windows  are  furnished  with  inside  blinds,  having  revolving  slats,  so  that 
the  light  may  be  regulated  with  great  ease. 

The  building  is  warmed  by  4  furnaces  placed  in  the  basement,  2  being  placed 
at  the  middle  of  each  end,  each  being  intended  to  warm  the  three  rooms  imme- 
diately over  it,  the  cast  iron  chimriies  being  relied  upon  for  heating  the  hall. 

Emerson's  system  of  ventilation  has  been  introduced  since  the  building  was 
finished,  each  room  having  a  separate  air-durt  to  the  roof,  14  inches  by  14  inches. 

The  apparatus  consists  of  the  Boston  Philosophical  set,  by  J.  M.  Wightman, 
Eayrs  and  Fairbanks'  globe,  2  sets  of  Pelton's  Outline  Maps,  and  one  01 
Mitchell's. 

A  library  costing  $200  has  been  furnished  by  the  donation  of  Mayor  Gluincy. 

To  protect  the  desks  from  injury,  the  slate-frames  are  all  required  to  be  cov- 
ered with  cloth,  and  each  scholar  is  to  provide  himself  with  a  convenient  box  to 
contain  his  pen,  pen-wiper,  per.cils,  rubber,  &c.  Each  desk  has  an  inkstand 
sunk  into  the  right-hand  corner,  with  a  revolving  metalic  cover. 

The  building  is  calculated  for  but  one  school,  and  is  at  present  occupied  by 
but  one,  the  organization  of  which  is  adapted  to  the  arrangement  and  construc- 
tion of  the  house.  When  the  organization  is  complete,  the  school  will  be 
divided  into  4  classes,  each  class  containing  168  scholars,  and  each  class  into  3 
divisions.  At  present  the  3  lower  classes  contain  two  divisions  each,  and  the 
first  class  3. 

On  the  3rd  floorare  the  first  division  of  the  first  class  under  the  instruction  o/ 


QUINCY  SCHOOL  HOUSE. 


203 


the  Principal,  and  the  several  divisions  of  theSd  class  instructed  by  assistants; 
On  the  2d  floor  is  the  2d  division  of  the  1st  class  instructed  by  the  sub-mas- 
ter, with  the  several  divisions  of  the  3d  class  under  assistants;  and  the  usher 
takes  the  3rd  division  of  the  1st  class,  with  the  several  divisions  of  the  4th  class 
on  the  1st  floor.  By  this  arrangement  the  government  is  rendered  compara- 
tively easy.  The  whole  school  is  brought  together  in  the  hall  for  devotional 
services,  and  other  general  exercises. 


. 

i  _«»»-  * 


Plan  of  First  Floor. 

A,  A,  Front  Door. 

B,  B,  Entries. 

C,  Corridor  or  Hall. 

T,  T,  T,  T,  Teachers'  Platform  24  feet  by  5' . 

r,  r,  r,  r,  Hot-air  flues. 

r,  r,  v.  v,  Preston's  Ventilators  for  controlling  the  flues  in  the  partition  wall, 
which  communicate  with  the  iron  smoke  pipes  near  the  top  of  the  building. 
This  plan  is  adopted  in  the  first  story  only. 

e,  c,  c,  c,  Indicates  the  location  of  the  flues  of  Emerson's  Ventilators  in  the 
second,  third  and  fourth  stories. 

s,  Sink. 

c,  c.  c,  c,  Closets. 

dt  d,  Closets  10  feet  by  11  feet, 


204  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

It  is  to  be  feared  there  are  not  many  communities,  even  in  New  Eng- 
land, where  the  Chief  Magistrate,  elected  annually  by  the  peopie,  would 
have  the  courage  to  utter  the  following  noble  sentiments,  spoken  by 
Mayor  duincy,  at  the  dedication  of  the  Quincy  Grammar  School-house, 
June  26,  1848. 

As  Chairman  of  the  "City  Fathers,"  lie  did  not  hesitate  to  stand  there  and 
tell  the  tax-paying  community  that  they  had,  in  this  manner,  just  expended 
$200,000  of  their  money ;  and  he  was  confident  the  question  would  not  be 
asked,  Why  spend  so  much'?  Why  spend  more  for  popular  education  in  the 
city  of  Boston,  than  is  expended  in  the  whole  of  Great-Britain'? 

tie  said,  if  but  once  in  a  century,  a  little  being  should  be  sent  into  this  world, 
of  most  delicate  and  beautiful  structure,  and  we  were  told  that  a  wonderful 
principle  pervaded  every  part  of  it,  capable  of  unlimited  expansion  and  hap- 
piness, capable  of  being  fitted  to  associate  with  angels  and  becoming  the  friend 
of  God:  or  if  it  should  receive  a  wrong  bias,  of  growing  up  in  enmity  against 
him,  and  incurring  everlasting  misery,  could  any  expense  of  education  which 
would  contribute  to  save  from  such  misery  and  elevate  to  such  happiness,  be 
too  much  7  But,  instead  of  one  such  little  being,  24,000  were  now  entrusted  to 
the  care  of  the  "  City  Fathers,"  and  their  education,  in  this  world,  will  deter- 
mine their  future  destiny, — of  companionship  with  angels,  or  with  the  degraded 
wretched,  enemies  of  God. 

If  the  community  had  no  responsibility  in  the  matter,  how,  he  asked,  could 
it  spend  money  better  than  in  educating  these  children  7  But  they  would  soon 
control  the  affairs  of  Boston,  and,  to  a  great  extent,  of  the  Commonwealth. 
Nor  would  their  influence  stop  here.  "No  man  liveth  for  himself"  Each  ot 
these  children  would  form  a  centre  of  widening  influence,  whose  circumference 
might  yet  embrace  millions  of  minds,  and  extend  through  unnumbered  centu- 
ries. 

Here,  unlike  other  countries,  every  restraint  to  individual  elevation  is  throAvn 
off.  All  have  the  most  perfect  liberty  that  can  be  enjoyed,  without  infringing 
upon  the  rights  of  others.  How  important  then,  that  each  child  should  be  ed- 
ucated to  understand  his  rights,  and  the  principles  and  habits  of  sdf-Goxern- 


We  are  all,  said  he,  in  a  partnership,  and  if  one  of  these  little  partners  suf- 
fers in  his  character,  the  whole  community  suffer  in  consequence. 

He  believed  that  nearly  half  of  the  400  boys  in  that  school  were  not  Ameri- 
cans. Many  of  their  parents  were  not  fitted  for  the  duties  of  a  Republic.  But 
these  children,  educated  side  by  side  with  our  own,  would  learn  self-govern- 
ment, and  be  trained  to  become  worthy  citizens  of  this  free  country. 

It  seemed,  he  said,  the  design  of  Providence  to  mix  races;  and  this  influx 
of  foreigners  might  constitute  the  very  elements  necessary  to  give  to  American 
character  its  highest  excellence.  Standing  on  such  a  moral  elevation,  as  Bos- 
ton did,  they  felt  it  a  duty  to  provide  for  the  education  of  all,  and  thus  present 
to  the  whole  country,  models  of  popular  education. 

These  schools  are  justly  the  pride  and  boast  of  the  city ;  and  the  senti- 
ment with  which  they  are  universally  regarded  is  beautifully  embodied 
in  the  following  extract  from  an  address  by  George  S.  Hillard,  Esq. 

The  schools  of  Boston  are  the  best  jewels  in  her  crown.  If  I  were  asked  by 
an  intelligent  stranger  to  point  out  to  him  our  most  valued  possessions,  I  would 
show  to  him — not  our  railroads,  our  warehouses,  filled  with  the  wealth  of  all 
the  earth,  our  ships,  our  busy  wharves  and  marts,  where  the  car  of  commerce 
is  ever  "  thundering  loud  with  her  ten  thousand  wheels,"  but  I  would  carry  him 
to  one  of  our  public  schools,  would  show  him  its  happy  and  intelligent  chil- 
dren, hushed  into  reverent  silence  at  their  teacher's  word,  or  humming  over 
their  tasks  with  a  sound  like  that  of  bees  in  June.  I  would  tell  him  that  here 
was  the  foundation  on  which  our  material  prosperity  was  reared,  that  here 
were  the  elements  from  which  we  constructed  the  State. 

Here  are  the  fountains  from  which  flow  those  streams  which  make  glad  our 
land.  The  schools  of  Boston  are  dear  to  my  heart.  Though  I  can  have  no 
personal  and  immediate  interest  in  them;  though  no  child  on  earth  calls  me 
father;  yet  most  gladly  do  I  contribute  to  their  support,  according  to  my  sub- 
stance; and  when  I  see  a  father's  eyes  filled  with  pleasant  tears  as  he  hears 


SYSTEM  OF  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS  IN  BOSTON.  205 

the  music  of  his  child's  voice  linked  to  some  strain  of  poetry  or  burst  of  elo- 
quence, I  can  sympathize  in  the  feeling  in  which  I  cannot  share.  May  the 
blessing  of  Heaven  rest  upon  our  schools.  They  are  an  object  worthy  of  all 
efforts  and  sacrifices.  We  should  leave  nothing  undone  which  may  tend  to 
make  them  more  excellent  and  more  useful.  For  this,  we  should  gather  into 
our  own  stores  all  the  harvest  of  experience  which  have  been  reaped  from 
other  soils.  The  present  is  an  age  oi  progress.  The  claims  of  humanity  are 
now  beginning  to  be  heard  as  they  never  were  before.  The  movements  in 
favor  of  Peace,  of  Anti-Slavery,  of  Temperance,  of  Education,  of  Prison  Dis- 
cipline, all  spring  from  the  same  root —  a  sense  of  sympathy  and  brotherhood. 

Is  it  too  much  to  say  that  the  dawn  of  a  new  day  is  reddening  the  tops  of  the 
mountains  1  Higher  yet  may  that  light  ascend,  till  its  golden  shafts  have 
pierced  the  deepest  valleys  ol  ignorance  and  sin!  Let  us  not  stand  idly  on 
the  brink,  while  the  tide  of  improvement  sweeps  by  us,  but  boldly  launch  our 
bark  upon  the  stream. 

We  live  in  a  community  ready  to  discern  and  to  do  that  which  is  right.  It 
should  be  a  source  of  gratitude  to  us  that  our  lot  is  cast  on  a  spot,  where  every 
good  and  worthy  faculty  may  find  appropriate  work  to  do.  When  I  behold 
this  city  that  we  love,  seated  upon  her  triple  throne  of  hills  with  her  mural 
crown  of  spires  and  domes  glittering  in  the  smokeless  air,  when  I  remember 
how  much  of  that  wrhich  embellishes  and  dignifies  life  is  gathered  under  those 
roofs,  I  feel  that  he  has  not  lived  in  vain  who  has  contributed,  even  in  the 
smallest  measure,  to  the  happiness  and  prosperity  of  Boston.  And  how  can 
we  do  this  more  effectually  than  by  watching  over  her  schools, — by  making 
them  as  nearly  perfect  as"  human  institutions  can  be  1  For  this  object  let 
neither  wealth"  nor  toil  be  spared.  Here  are  fountains  of  life;  as  they  are,  so 
will  its  issues  be.  The  child  is  father  to  the  man.  Make  our  schools  all  that 
they  can  be,  and  all  that  they  should  be,  and  we  shall  give  to  the  prosperity  of 
our  beloved  city  a  permanence  like  that  of  moral  truth.  It  will  become  an 
inevitable  necessity,  like  that  which  compels  the  heart  of  man  to  love  what  is 
lovely,  and  venerate  what  is  venerable. 

The  following  statistics  are  taken  from  the  "  Third  Annual  Report  of 
the  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  (Nathan  Bishop,  Esq.,)  of  the 
City  of  Boston,"  submitted  Dec.  29,  1853. 

Estimated  cost  of  all  the  Public  School  Estates  to  May  1st,  1853. 

1.  Cost  of  the  Latin  and  English  High  School  Estate,  and  of  the 
improvements  on  the  same, $82,151.51 

2.  Cost  of  all  the  Grammar  School  Estates,  and  of  the  improve- 
ments on  the  same, 797,848.49 

3.  Cost  of  all  the  Primary  School  Estates,  and  of  the  improve- 
ments on  the  same, 448,500.00 

Total  cost  of  all  the  Public  School  Estates, $1,358,500.00 

Means  and  Cost  of  supporting  Public  Schools. 

The  City  receives  annually,  from  the  State  School  Fund,  about,  $5,500.00 
The  remainder  of  the  means  for  supporting  the  Public  Schools 
\s  drawn  from  the  City  Treasury,  which  is  replenished  by  the  an- 
nual tax  and  by  other  sources  of  income.  During  the  last  twelve 
years,  21  per  cent,  of  the  ordinary  city  expenditures  has  been  ap- 
propriated to  the  Public  Schools. 

In   the  year  1853,   the   expenses   of  the  School   Department 

amounted  to, 329,800.20 

Viz.,  for  Grammar  Schools — salaries  of  teachers,   130,531.18 

"         "  "  incidental  expenses, 35,849.82 

new  buildings  and  alterations, 42,991.00 

"       "     Primary  Schools — salaries  of  teachers, 82,508.33 

«       "         "  u  incidental  expenses, 22,231.46 

«       «         «  «  buildings 35,823.09 


206 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


After  a  variety  of  experiments  in  school  architecture,  the  School 
Committee  of  Boston  have  adopted  the  internal  arrangements  of  the 
Quincy  Grammar  School,  as  the  best  adapted  to  that  organization 
which  affords  the  greatest  facilities  of  instruction  and  government  in 
this  class  of  schools.  Although  we  are  not  prepared  to  adopt  without 
qualification  the  views  taken  of  the  subject,  we  give  below  extracts  from 
the  First  Semi-Annual  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools, 
(Nathan  Bishop,  Esq.)  in  which  the  grounds  of  this  preference  are  set 
forth. 

The  proper  size  of  a  school-house  in  a  large  city,  where  the  population  is  dense, 
must  be  determined  by  the  number  of  pupils  required  in  one  building  in  order  to 
make  the  best  classification.  By  classification  is  meant,  the  putting  together  of 
as  many  scholars  as  one  teacher  can  instruct  well  into  one  division  or  group. 
Experience  has  shown  that  between  fifty  and  sixty,  all  being  about  equally  ad- 
vanced in  their  several  studies,  can  be  well  taught  by  one  teacher.  The  best 
classification  of  pupils  in  schools  is  nothing  more  than  a  wise  application  of  the 
principle  of  the  division  of  labor,  which  has  done  so  much  to  advance  and  to  per- 
fect the  various  branches  of  industry.  A  division  of  labor,  made  on  the  right 
principle,  always  increases  the  facilities  of  performing  the  process,  or  improves  the 
quality  of  the  article  made,  and  not  unfrequently  accomplishes  both  these  objects 
at  the  same  time.  It  must  constantly  be  borne  in  mind,  that  it  is  not  simply  a  di- 
vision of  labor  which  has  effected  such  wonderful  improvements  in  every  depart- 
ment of  business  carried  on  in  the  civilized  world ;  but  it  is  a  division  of  a  particu- 
lar kind  of  labor,  on  such  a  principle  as  will  enable  the  persons  engaged  in  it  to 
perform  more  of  it  in  a  given  time  without  additional  effort,  and  to  do  it  as  well 
as  they  could  before,  or  even  better. 

Actual  experience  has  shown,  in  many  instances,  that  a  school  containing  eight 
hundred  pupils  can  be  classified  to  better  advantage  than  one  containing  any 
smaller  number.  A  school  of  this  size  can  be  managed  with  but  little  more  labor 
on  the  part  of  the  principal  than  is  required  for  one  only  half  as  large.  If  the 
difference  in  the  attainments  of  the  children  in  each  division  be  so  small  that  they 
can  with  advantage  study  the  same  lessons,  then  the  teacher  may  instruct  them 
altogether  in  some  recitations  and  exercises,  and,  for  the  others,  he  may  separate 
them  into  two  sections ;  and,  while  he  is  hearing  one  recite  a  lesson,  the  other 
may  be  preparing  for  the  next  recitation  ;  and  so  on,  for  every  school-day  in  the 
year,  the  teacher  can  give  one  half  of  his  time  to  one  section,  and  one  half  to  the 
other  ;  and  in  this  way  each  pupil  will  receive  a  greater  amount  of  personal  in- 
struction and  assistance  from  his  teacher  than  on  any  other  plan  of  dividing  the 
labor  of  teaching  a  large  school. 

The  teacher,  having  but  few  branches  pursued  in  his  division,  has  ample  time 
to  make  thorough  preparation  to  explain  and  illustrate  all  difficult  points  in  every 
lesson.  Having  sufficient  time,  also,  for  hearing  the  recitations  of  his  pupils,  a 
good  teacher  can  awaken  in  his  class  a  degree  of  mental  activity  in  the  pursuit  of 
knowledge,  which  will  lend  to  their  intellects  the  best  discipline,  while  it  enlarges 
the  fields  of  their  vision  on  the  different  branches  of  study.  He  will  also  have 
time  to  throw  around  the  more  important  facts  and  principles  in  the  text-books 
such  remarks  and  illustrations  as  will  attract  and  secure  the  attention  of  his 
scholars,  and  impress  upon  their  minds  a  well-defined  idea  of  each  leading  fact  or 
principle  by  itself  5  and  then  he  may  group  them  together  into  one  larger  view, 
showing  their  connection  with  the  general  subject,  and  making  them  throw  some 
light  on  what  has  gone  before,  or  prepare  the  way  for  what  comes  after,  in  the 
study  under  examination. 

The  following  "  SPECIFICATION  of  materials  to  be  provided,  and  labor 
performed,  in  the  erection  of  a  Grammar  School-house,"  drawn  up  by 
Joseph  R.  Richards,  architect,  embodies  the  latest  improvements  adopted 
by  the  School  Committee  of  Boston. 


BOSTON  GRAMMAR  SCHOOL.  207 

SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  A  GRAMMAR  SCHOOL. 

Description. 

The  building  is  to  be  of  brick,  it  is  to  measure  sixty  feet  by  eighty  feet  above  the  un- 
derpinning, and  to  contain  three  finished  stories  ;  the  first  and  second  each  twelve  feet 
high,  and  the  third  story  fourteen  feet  high,  in  the  clear.  The  roof  is  to  have  an  incli- 
nation of  twenty-nine  degrees  from  each  side  of  the  building,  intersecting  in  a  ridge; 
there  is  to  be  an  observatory  or  belfry  immediately  upon  the  center  of  the  ridge  9i  by  9£ 
feet  octagonal  form,  and  thirteen  feet  in  height  to  top  of  roof;  the  cellar  will  be  eight 
feet  deep'  in  the  clear.  The  lot  of  land  is  to  be  inclosed  with  a  brick  wall  on  two  sides, 
and  with  an  iron  fence  on  the  front  end  ;  the  space  in  the  rear  is  to  be  divided  into  yards 
by  board  fences,  and  to  contain  a  block  of  privies  against  the  rear  line  of  the  estate. 
The  first  floor  of  the  buiding  is  to  set  four  feet  above  the  level  of  the  street  sidewalk. 
The  building  is  to  set  back  from  the  front  line  of  the  lot  of  land  ten  feet. 

Excavating. 

The  dirt  and  rubbish  is  to  be  dug  out  for  the  cellar  and  cellar  walls,  and  all  trenches 
and  footings  for  the  vaults  and  the  drains  and  cesspools,  as  required ;  and  all  that  is  not 
required  for  grading  up  the  lot,  is  to  be  removed  from  the  premises.  The  yards  are  all 
to  be  filled  and  graded  up  to  the  level  of  the  cellar  flooring,  with  good  gravel,  where 
below  the  same. 

Granite  Foundations. 

Each  of  the  walls  are  to  have  a  bottom  course,  three  feet  long,  eighteen  inches  deep, 
and  two  feet  wide,  laid  crosswise  of  the  trenches  ;  upon  the  same  is  to  be  laid  a  stone 
wall,  eighteen  inches  thick,  built  with  square  split  granite  blocks,  laid  in  cement  mortar, 
faced  on  the  inside,  and  thoroughly  whitewashed.  Good  and  sufficient  foundations  are 
to  be  laid  for  the  steps,  coal  hoals,  walls  of  the  privies,  and  furnaces. 

The  underpinning  of  the  four  walls  of  the  building,  the  steps,  platforms  and  thresholds, 
gate  thresholds,  and  fence  stones,  caps  and  sills  to  cellar  windows,  privy  thresholds, 
curbs  to  vaults,  covers  to  yard  cesspools,  are  all  to  be  of  even  colored  grani'te,  free  from 
rust,  sap,  or  flaws  ;  fine  hammered  where  directed ;  and  set  in  lime  mortar,  cramped, 
leaded,  and  pointed,  as  required  and  directed.  Iron  strainers  are  to  be  fitted  to  the  cess- 
pool covers,  with  a  movable  cover,  and  three  stone  movable  covers  are  to  be  fitted  to  the 
vaults,  having  strong  iron  rings  fitted  thereto.  Properly  fit  a  cold  air  box  to  the  outside 
wall,  with  a  grating  on  the  outside  thereof. 

Sandstone. 

There  are  to  be  caps  and  sills  to  all  the  windows  of  the  building,  and  caps  to  the 
privy  doors,  of  freestone,  rubbed  on  the  three  fronts,  and  tooled  on  the  rear  front;  the 
first  and  second  story  caps  are  to  be  moulded  according  to  the  full  size  drawing. 

Brickwork. 

Back  up  the  underpinning  of  the  four  walls,  so  as  to  make  a  total  thickness  of  twenty 
inches  to  the  same.  The  four  exterior  walls,  are  to  be  in  two  thicknesses,  of  eight  inches 
each,  with  an  air  space  of  four  inches  between  them,  built  up  the  whole  height  of  the 
building  to  the  roof  boarding;  and  a  neat  facia  fitted  to  the  cornice.  The  outside  fac- 
ing of  three  side  walls  are  to  be  laid  with  the  first  quality  of  pressed  bricks,  properly 
tied  to  the  walls  every  seventh  course  by  "  angular  brick  ties."  The  interior  walls  are 
each  to  be  twelve  inches  thick,  laid  from  the  bottom  course  to  the  under  side  of  the  attic 
flooring.  The  outside  walls  of  the  privies,  are  to  be  laid  eight  inches  thick  each, 
and  seven  and  a  half  feet  high,  and  the  partition  walls  four  inches  thick.  The  yard 
walls  are  each  to  be  twelve  inches  thick,  and  eight  feet  high  above  the  sidewalk  level, 
commenced  on  solid  stone  foundations  below  ground.  The  above  are  all  to  be  laid  in 
the  best  lime  mortar.  The  vaults  to  be  laid  in  cesspool  form,  and  the  drains,  cesspools 
are  to  be  laid  in  cement  mortar  of  the  best  quality.  The  cellars  are  to  be  paved  with 
uniform  hard  bricks  all  over  their  surfaces.  The  exterior  walls  are  to  be  tied  together 
at  suitable  distances  ;  the  ventilators  are  to  be  laid  partly  in  the  wall,  fourteen  by  eigh- 
teen inches  each,  smoothly  plastered  ;  the  iron  chimneys  are  to  be  recessed  in  the  entry 
walls  and  connected  therewith  ;  the  vaults  are  to  be  six  feet  deep ;  the  yard  walls  are 
to  be  capped  with  stone,  set  in  cement.  All  the  brickwork  is  to  be  built  with  the  best 
hard  burnt  brick. 

Lathing  and  Plastering. 

The  ceilings  of  the  three  stories  are  to  be  lathed  and  plastered  ;  the  several  walls  are 
to  be  plastered  on  the  walls  without  lathings,  with  a  stout  coat  of  lime  and  hair  mortar, 
and  finished  smoothly  with  lime  putty ;  the  whole  work  to  be  done  neat  and  true  ;  a 
coat  of  lime  and  hair  mortar  is  to  finish  on  the  walls  of  the  privies  and  the  ceilings  also. 

Slating. 

The  roof  of  the  building  is  to  be  slated  with  the  best  of  wide  ladies  slates,  laid  not 
exceeding  6J  inches  to  the  weather,  put  on  with  composition  nails,  and  properly  secured 


208  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

with  flashings  of  lead,  3£  Ibs.  to  the  square  foot ;  fit  heavy  zinc,  strapped  with  irons,  to 
the  ridges,  and  warrant  the  whole  perfectly  tight. 

Iron  works  and  Incideulals, 

There  is  to  be  an  upright,  twisted,  diamond  formed,  wrought  iron  grating  to  each  of 
the  cellar  windows,  with  a  heavy  frame  attached.  There  are  to  be  two  stout  iron  scrapers 
at  each  door.  There  is  to  be  a  stout  iron  snow  fender  running  around  the  building  on 
the  roof,  costing  50  cents  per  foot.  An  iron  fence,  to  cost  $3  per  lineal  foot,  is  to  be 
made  and  set  up  complete,  with  two  gates  hung  and  fastened  across  the  front  end  of 
the  lot  with  four  iron  posts,  securely  set,  leaded,  and  fastened  ;  the  gates  are  each  to 
have  a  lock.  The  ends  of  the  fence  are  to  be  fastened  to  a  stone  post,  placed  at  the 
ends  of  the  side  walls. 

The  building  committee  will  provide  for  the  furnaces,  iron  smoke  pipes,  ventilators, 
and  furnace  registers,  and  hot  air  pipes  complete  ;  set  the  same  as  directed.  Set  and 
introduce  such  water  pipes  in  the  building  as  may  be  required,  the  building  committee 
furnishing  such,  and  all  the  furnaces.  The  committee  will  also  provide  such  drains 
and  cause  such  cesspools  to  be  laid  as  maybe  required. 

An  iron  cornice  with  modillions  is  to  be  set  entirely  around  the  building,  costing 
$2.50  per  lineal  foot ;  the  gutter  of  the  building  is  to  be  made  therein  ;  the  whole  to  be 
braced  and  properly  fastened  to  the  wall.  There  are  to  be  four  conductors  to  the  building, 
each  four  inches  in  diameter,  of  18  oz.  cold  rolled  copper,  put  up,  connected  with  the  gut- 
ters, and  led  oft' in  a  proper  manner  with  heavy  goose  necks,  and  3£  inch  pipes  at  the 
bottom  to  lead  water  into  the  drain.  To  be  two  copper  conductors  and  a  copper  gutter  to 
the  block  of  privies.  The  roof  of  the  privies  and  observatory  are  to  be  covered  with  sheet 
X  X  tin,  lapped,  soldered  and  finished  in  the  best  possible  manner  and  warranted  tight. 

Carpentry  and  Framing. 

The  roofs  and  floors  are  to  be  framed  in  the  manner  indicated  by  the  drawings,  with 
good  sound  lumber,  and  timber  of  the  following  dimensions.  Principal  floor  joists,  of 
spruce,  3X15  inches  ;  trimmers  and  headers,  of  spruce,  GXlSinches;  privy  floor  joists, 
of  spruce,  3X6  inches;  attic  ceiling  joists,  of  spruce,  between  tresses,  2X6  inches  ;  tie 
beams  of  roof,  of  pine,  9X12  inches;  truss  rafters  of  pine,  9X12  inches;  purlines  of 
spruce,  8X8  inches  ;  small  rafters  of  spruce,  20  inches  apart,  3X5  inches  ;  wall  plates, 
of  spruce,  3X9  inches  ;  ridge  plank,  2X10.  The  floor  joists  are  to  be  worked  to  a  mould 
crowning  1  inch,  they  are  to  have  a  fair  bearing  of  4  inches  on  the  walls,  at  each  end,  and 
to  be  placed  not  exceeding  15  inches  apart,  from  center  to  center  of  each,  and  bridged 
with  two  rows  of  cross  bridging.  The  roof  tresses  are  to  be  fitted  with  wrought  iron 
bolts,  1  inch  in  diameter,  with  heads,  screws,  washer  and  nuts,  and  footings,  bolts  also 
of  same  size.  There  is  to  be  a  lintal  4X8  inches  over  every  opening  in  the  walls  that 
require  it,  and  under  the  "  withs  "  of  the  privies,  having  a  fair  bearing  of  eight  inches  at 
the  end. 

Boarding  and  Furring. 

The  under  floors  of  the  rooms,  entries,  and  platforms,  and  privies  and  the  roofs,  are 
to  be  laid  with  No.  3  pine  boards,  machine  planed,  matched,  and  well  nailed. 

The  ceilings  and  stairways  of  the  three  stories  are  to  be  furred  with  three  inch  fur- 
rings,  of  sound  seasoned,  dry  pine  boards,  spaced  for  five  nailings  to  a  lathe.  Nail 
them  with  tenpennies.  Put  on  three-fourth  inch  grounds  for  finish,  and  irons  for  cor- 
ners and  angles.  There  are  to  be  two  strips  of  furring  for  hanging  charts  thereto,  ex- 
tending entirely  round  each  of  the  school-rooms,  as  directed. 

Cold  Air  Soxes  and  Ventilating  Flues. 

There  is  to  be  a  separate  flue  for  each  furnace,  12X20  inches  clear,  made  of 
thoroughly  seasoned  pine  boards,  smoothed  on  the  inside  and  put  together  with  two  inch 
screws ;  there  is  to  be  a  valve  and  handle  to  each.  The  ventilating  flues  are  to  have  a 
valve  and  a  handle  ;  they  are  to  be  made  of  thoroughly  seasoned  pine  boards,  smoothed 
inside  and  outside  and  put  together  with  screws.  There  is  to  be  a  separate  one  for 
each  school-room,  and  each  block  often  privies  ;  fitted  with  blind  openings  or  registers 
at  the  floor  and  ceiling,  arranged  as  shown  upon  plans,  and  as  now  completed  in  most 
of  the  school-houses  recently  erected  by  the  City  of  Boston.  The  ventilating  flues  are 
to  be  connected  with  two  roof  ventilators,  largest  size,  arranged  as  directed.  There  are 
to  be  two  roof  ventilators  over  the  privies. 

Windows  and  Blinds. 

All  the  windows  of  the  three  stories  are  to  have  double  box  frames,  hard  pine  pulley 
stiles,  &c.  The  sashes  are  to  be  made  of  pine  li  inches  thick,  moulded,  coped,  and 
lipped.  They  are  all  to  be  double  hung  with  the  best  of  white  window  lines,  iron  pul- 
leys, steel  pintels  and  round  iron  weights  of  accurate  balance.  All  the  sashes  are  to 
be  fastened  with  strong  bronzed  sash  fastenings  to  cost  $4.50  per  dozen.  All  the  win- 
dows of  the  three  stories  are  to  be  fitted  with  l\  inch  framed  blinds,  eight  parts  to  each, 
window,  hung  and  fastened  complete  with  iron  butt  hinges  and  bronze  hooks,  staples, 


BOSTON  GRAMMAR  SCHOOL.  209 

and  rosewood  knobs,  and  to  fold  into  flat  boxings.  They  are  all  to^  finish  with  U  inch 
moulded  architraves,  8  inches  wide,  plain  jambs,  sofits,  and  stools.  The  cellar  windows 
are  to  be  made  with  plank  frames  rebated  for  the  sashes,  and  to  have  double  sashes 
huns  to  the  tops  of  the  frames,  fastened  with  strong  iron  buttons  and  fitted  with  catches 
to  hold  them  open  when  desired.  Each  privy  is  to  have  a  movable  window  in  its 
door.  The  observatory  windows  are  to  be  double  hung  and  fastened. 

Doors. 

The  outside  doors  are  to  be  2i  inches  thick,  all  other  doors  in  the  building  are  to  be 
two  inches  thick,  made  with  four  panels  each,  hung  with  two  four  inch  butt  hinges,  and 
fastened  with  mortice  locks  and  knobs,  to  cost  §2.50  each,  and  with  catches,  bolts,  min- 
eral knobs,  bronze  trimmings,  and  small  duplicate  keys.  The  outside  doors  are  to  be 
fastened  with  lever  locks  of  the  best  quality,  with  mineral  knobs  and  small  duplicate 
keys.  The  privy  doors  are  to  be  two  feet  by  six  feet  one  and  one  half  inches  thick, 
four  paneled,  hung  with  iron  butt  hinges,  fastened  with  good  knob  locks,  having  dupli- 
cate small  keys ;  they  are  to  have  two  inch  rebated  and  beaded  frames,  hard  pine 
thresholds,  and  architraves,  as  described  for  the  windows,  with  plinths.  Properly  hang 
the  outside  doors  to  three  inch  Southern  pine  plank  frames,  properly  dogged  to  the 
threshold  and  wall. 

Stairs. 

The  several  flights  of  stairs  are  to  be  square  frames,  with  four  deep  plank  stringers; 
they  are  to  be  finished  with  hard  pine  risers  one  inch  thick,  and  treads  one  and  one- 
fourth  inches  thick,  with  moulded  nosings.  The  cellar  stairs  are  to  be  finished  with 
plain  pine  risers  and  treads,  and  close  partitions  one  and  one-half  inches  thick,  matched 
and  planed.  There  is  to  be  a  neat  flight  of  portable  steps  to  ascend  to  the  attic  and 
observatory,  and  to  the  roof  scuttle,  which  is  to  be  made  and  hung  complete.  All  the 
flights  are  to  have  cherry  wood  hand  rail,  moulded,  three  by  two  and  three-fourth 
inches  ;  turned  cherry  wood  posts,  five  inches  in  diameter,  at  the  head  and  foot  and  each 
landing  of  the  flights,  and  hard  pine  balusters,  one  and  one-fourth  inches  diameter, 
three  to  each  stair  tread;  the  top  of  the  rail  is  to  be  three  feet  above  the  nosing  of  the 
stair  tread  ;  the  whole  to  be  made  and  finished  in  a  perfect  manner.  All  the  well  rooms 
are  to  be  properly  cased  and  finished. 

Skirting 

The  rooms,  closets,  entries,  and  stairways,  are  to  be  skirted  up  as  high  as  the  win- 
dow stools,  in  the  respective  stories,  with  narrow,  beaded,  matched  lining,  guaged  to  a 
width  not  exceeding  seven  inches,  and  the  joints  to  butt  even  in  every  case ;  cap  the 
same  to  correspond  with  the  window  stools  ;  the  lining  is  to  be  of  clear  white  pine. 
One  side  of  the  wall  of  each  room  is  to  be  fitted  for  the  slates  with  frames,  as  directed. 

Floorings. 

The  platforms  are  to  be  furred  up,  as  shown  by  the  drawing,  and  the  stairways,  plat- 
forms, and  privies  are  to  be  boarded,  and  the  several  floorings  to  be  laid  with  narrow  hard 
pine  clear  boards,  perfectly  jointed  and  thoroughly  nailed.  The  strips  are  to  be  guaged 
to  a  width  respectively,  and  the  joints  broken  at  least  three  feet,  and  in  no  case  are 
strips  of  a  different  width  to  butt  on  to  each  other.  The  entry  and  privy  floors  are  all 
to  be  of  hard  pine. 

Cabinets,   tfc. 

There  is  to  be  a  cabinet  at  the  wall  end  of  each  platform,  with  shelves  and  small 
closets  below,  and  a  sash  door.  There  are  to  be  sixty-five  clothes  hooks  hung  on  strips 
of  pine,  as  directed,  to  each  room.  There  are  to  be  two  umbrella  stands  in  each  entry. 
To  be  six  sinks  placed  where  directed.  To  be  four  coal  bins,  and  two  closets  for  kind- 
lings, in  the  cellar.  Finish  the  privy  seats  as  directed,  complete  in  every  particular. 
Put  up  three  bells  where  directed,  with  "  pulls"  and  tubes  complete. 

Painting  and  Glazing. 

Oil  all  the  hard  wood  finish,  except  floorings.  All  the  outside  wood  work  is  to  be  pre- 
pared and  painted  in  imitation  of  free  stone.  The  outside  doors  are  to  be  painted 
bronze.  The  blinds  are  to  be  painted,  four  coats  of  Paris  green,  and  varnished.  The 
rest  of  the  inside  finish  is  to  be  primed,  painted,  and  grained,  in  imitation  of  oak,  maple, 
or  other  color,  as  directed  by  the  committee,  and  varnished  twice.  Paint  all  the  iron 
work,  three  coats  best  black  and  one  coat  varnish.  All  the  sashes  are  to  be  glazed  with 
the  very  best  quality  of  German  glass,  of  double  thickness,  and  finish  the  same  com- 
plete in  every  particular,  with  the  sizes  of  glass  as  marked  upon  plans. 

Memorandum, 

All  the  timber  and  lumber  is  to  well  seasoned,  and  all  that  is  in  sight  is  to  be  entirely 
free  from  sap,  shakes,  and  large  knots  ;  the  finish  stock  of  every  kind  must  be  perfectly 
kiln  dried ;  the  labor  is  to  be  done  in  the  most  faithful  manner. 


PUTNAM  FREE  SCHOOL-HOUSE.  211 


PLANS    AND   DESCRIPTION    OF   THE   PUTNAM    FREE    SCHOOL-HOUSE, 

NEWBURYPORTj   MASS. 

We  are  indebted  to  W.  H.  Wells,  Esq.,  the  gentleman  who  has 
been  selected  as  Principal  of  the  Putnam  Free  School,  and  to  whom 
the  work  of  organizing  this  important  institution  has  been  committed, 
for  the  following  plans  and  description. 

The  Putnam  Free  School  was  founded  by  Mr.  Oliver  Putnam,  a 
native  of  Newbury.  It  has  a  permanent  fund  of  fifty  thousand  dol- 
lars, besides  the  amount  invested  in  the  school-house  and  its  appur- 
tenances. 

The  number  of  pupils  to  be  admitted  at  the  opening  of  the  school 
(April,  1848,)  is  limited  by  the  Trustees  to  80.  No  pupil  can  be 
received  under  twelve  years  of  age,  nor  for  less  time  than  one  year. 

The  object  of  the  Institution  is  to  lead  pupils  through  an  extended 
course  of  English  studv.  It  is  open  to  students  from  any  portion  of 
the  country*  who  are  prepared  to  meet  the  requirements  for  admis- 
sion. No  charge  is  made  for  tuition. 

This  building  is  situated  on  High  street,  directly  opposite  the  Common  or 
Mall.  It  is  constructed  of  brick,  with  corners,  door-sills,  underpinning,  steps, 
etc.,  of  freestone.  It  is  two  stories  in  height,  exclusive  of  a  basement  story, 
85  i  feet  in  length,  and  52 -i-  in  breadth. 

The  upper  story  is  divided  into  two  principal  school-rooms,  each  49£  feet  by 
40 -L  There  is  also  a  small  room  in  this  story  for  the  use  of  the  Principal. 
The  lower  story  contains  a  hall  for  lectures  and  other  general  exercises,  and 
four  recitation  rooms.  The  hall  is  44  feet  by  48£.  Two  of  the  recitation 
rooms  are  14  feet  by  17,  and  two  are  11  by  20. 

Each  of  the  principal  school-rooms  is  furnished  with  64  single  seats  and 
desks,  besides  recitation  chairs,  settees,  etc.  The  desks  are  made  of  cherry; 
and  both  the  desks  and  the  chairs  are  supported  by  iron  castings,  screwed 
firmly  to  the  floor.  In  form  and  construction,  they  are  similar  to  Kimball's 
"  Improved  School  Chairs  and  Desks." 

The  central  aisles  are  two  feet  and  eight  inches  in  width ;  the  side  aisles, 
four  feet  and  four  inches;  and  the  remaining  aisles,  two  feet. 

The  building  is  warmed  by  two  furnaces.  It  is  ventilated  by  six  flues  from 
the  hall  on  the  lower  floor,  six  from  each  of  the  school-rooms  on  the  second 
floor,  and  one  from  each  of  the  recitation  rooms.  Each  of  these  flues  has  two 
registers ;  one  near  the  floor,  and  the  other  near  the  ceiling.  The  two  princi- 
pal school-rooms  are  furnished  with  double  windows. 

The  institution  is  provided  with  ample  play-grounds  and  garden  plots,  back 
of  the  building  and  at  the  ends.  It  has  also  a  bell  weighing  340  Ibs. 

The  first  appropriation  of  the  Trustees  for  the  purchase  of  apparatus,  is  one 
thousand  dollars.  Other  appropriations  will  probably  be  made,  as  the  \vants 
of  the  school  may  require.  In  addition  to  the  apparatus  procured  by  the  Trus- 
tees, the  institution  is  to  have  the  use  of  an  achromatic  telescope,  which  will 
cost  between  three  and  four  hundred  dollars. 

The  cost  of  the  building  and  ground,  with  the  various  appurtenances,  exclu- 
sive of  apparatus,  has  amounted  to  twenty-six  thousand  dollars. 

The  accompanying  plans  give  a  correct  representation  of  the  arrangements 
on  the  two  principal  floors. 

The  building  was  erected  after  designs  and  specifications  by  Mr.  Bryant, 
Architect,  Boston. 


212 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


PUTNAM   FREE  SCHOOL-HOUSE.— LOWER  STORY 


-•-•• 

J 

1ELI 

1 

1 

i 

D^ 

J^fl 

r^a 

&3         <3 

J 

&3 

u 

o 

H — Hall  for  lectures  and  other  general  exercises,  44  feet  by  48£.  A — Raised 
platform  for  desk.  D — Front  door.  (The  portico  in  front  does  not  appear  in  the 
plate.)  B,  B — Recitation  rooms,  11  feet  by  20.  R,  R — Recitation  rooms,  14  feet 
by  17.  E,  E,  E,  E — Entries.  C,  C — Wash  closets,  under  the  stairs,  a,  a — Doors 
leading  to  the  basement  story,  d,  d,  d,  d,  d,  d,  d,  d,  d,  d — Doors,  v,  v,  v,  v,  v, 
v,  vf  v,  v,  v.— Ventilating  flues. 


PtTNAM  FREE  SCHOOL-HOUSE,  NEWBURYPORT. 
PUTNAM  FREE  SCHOOL-HOUSE.— UPPER  STORY. 


213 


M,  D — Room  for  Male  Department.  F,  D — Room  for  Female  Department 
A,  A — Raised  platforms  for  teachers'  desks.  L — Principal's  room.  C,  C — 
Closets,  p,  p — Raised  platforms  under  the  black-boards,  s,  s,  s,  s,  s,  s — Settees 
d,  d,  d,  d,  d,  d — Doors,  v,  v,  v,  v,  v,  v,  v,  v,  v,  v,  V,  v — Ventilating  flues 


214  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 

PLAN,  &c.,  OF  EAST  SCHOOL,  SALEM,  MASS. 

The  lot  on  which  the  house  stands  extends  from  Essex  street  to  Bath 
street. — There  is  a  sufficient  passage-way  on  each  side  of  the  house,  and 
access  from  each  street.  The  north  end  faces  the  common,  which  affords 
the  most  ample  play-ground,  always  open. 

The  exterior  dimensions  of  the  building  are  136  by  50  ft.  The  school- 
rooms are  65  by  36  ft.  and  15  ft.  high,  each  :  the  space  in  front  of  the  desks, 
65  by  4  ft.  6  inches  ;  the  space  occupied  by  the  desks,  59  by  25  ft.  ;  the 
space  in  rear  of  the  desks,  65  by  6  ft.  6  inches  ;  the  floor  of  which  is  raised 
8  inches  above  the  floor  of  the  rooms  ;  the  side  aisles  are  3  ft.,  and  all  the 
other  aisles  18  inches  in  width. 

The  desks  are  so  placed  that  the  scholars  sit  with  their  faces  towards  the 
partition  which  separates  the  school-room  from  the  recitation  rooms,  the 
light  being  thus  admitted  in  their  rear  and  on  one  side. 

The  desks  are  4  ft  in  length,  and  of  four  sizes  in  width,  the  two  front 
ranges  being  16  inches,  the  two  next  15,  the  two  next  14,  and  the  two  next 
13.  The  desks  are  also  of  four  sizes  in  height ;  the  two  front  ranges  being, 
on  the  lower  side,  27  inches,  the  two  next  26,  the  two  next  25,  the  two 
next  24. 

The  desks  in  each  school-room  are  placed  in  ranges,  each  range  contain- 
ing eleven  desks,  and  each  desk  being  fitted  for  two  scholars ;  so  that  176 
scholars  may  be  received  in  each  department,  or  352  in  the  whole  school. 
The  desks  are  constructed  like  tables,  with  turned  legs,  narrow  rails,  in- 
clined top  and  a  shelf  beneath.  The  legs  and  rails  are  of  birch,  stained  and 
varnished,  and  the  tops  of  cherry,  oiled  and  varnished.  The  legs  are  se- 
cured in  the  floor  by  tenons.  The  tables  of  the  teachers  are  constructed 
and  finished  like  the  desks  of  the  scholars. 

The  chairs  are  also  of  four  sizes ;  those  in  the  two  front  ranges  being  12 
by  12-3-  inches  in  the  seat,  (i.  e.  extreme  width,  the  sides  being  of  the  usual 
shape  of  chairs,)  and  16  inches  in  height,  and  those  in  the  succeeding  ranges 
being  reduced  in  height  in  proportion  to  the  desks,  and  also  varying  propor- 
tionally in  the  dimensions  of  the  seats. 

The  chairs  are  constructed  with  seats  of  bass  wood,  and  cherry  backs ; 
the  seats  and  backs  hollowed,  and  the  seats  resting  on  wooden  pedestals, 
secured  to  the  floor  by  tenons  and  screws. 

Upon  the  front  edge  of  the  raised  platform,  in  the  rear  of  the  desks,  set- 
tees are  placed,  which  are  of  the  same  length  as  the  desks,  and  are  placed 
in  corresponding  positions,  with  intervening  spaces  in  continuation  of  the 
aisles.  The  settees  are  placed  with  the  back  towards  the  desks,  and  are 
designed  exclusively  for  the  use  of  classes  attending  reviews  before  the 
principals.  The  settees  in  width  and  height  correspond  to  the  largest  size 
of  chairs,  and  are  constructed  of  the  same  materials,  and  finished  in  the  same 
style. 

In  the  center  and  at  the  extremities  of  the  range  of  settees,  are  placed 
tables,  (of  4  by  2  ft.  6  inches,  oval  shape,)  which  are  occupied  by  the  assist- 
ants, during  general  exercises,  when  the  station  of  the  principal  is  in  front. 
of  the  desks,  the  middle  one  being  used  by  the  principal  wrhen  attending 
reviews. 

Each  recitation  room  (18  by  10  ft.)  is  appropriated  to  a  single  course  of 
study,  as  marked  upon  the  plan,  and  is  therefore  used  exclusively  by  one 
assistant.  Three  sides  of  the  room  are  appropriated  to  seats,  being  lined 
with  cherry  wood,  (oiled  and  varnished)  to  a  height  reaching  above  the 
heads  of  the  scholars.  The  lining  is  projected  at  the  bottom,  so  as  to  fur- 
nish inclined  backs  to  the  seats,  which  are  constructed  of  cherry  wood,  13 
inches  in  width,  2  inches  thick,  with  hollowed  top  and  rounded  edge,  sup- 
ported on  turned  legs,  the  height  being  15£  inches  from  the  top  of  the  seat 
to  the  floor.  The  fourth  side  of  the  room,  opposite  the  window,  is  occupied 
by  a  blackboard  of  3  ft.  in  width,  which  extends  across  the  space  upon 
each  side  of  the  door. 

All  the  spaces  between  the  doors  and  windows  upon  the  four  sides  of  the 


EAST  GRAMMAR  SCHOOL-HOUSE,  SALEM. 


215 


school-rooms  are  occupied  by  blackboards.  In  the  spaces  between  the 
windows  upon  the  rear,  recesses  have  been  constructed,  which  are  fitted 
with  book-shelves,  and  are  closed  by  means  of  covers  in  front,  which  am 
raised  and  lowered  by  weights  and  pulleys.  These  covers  are  blackboards, 
and  are  so  finished  as  to  represent  sunken  panels.  Drawers  are  construct- 
ed beneath  the  blackboards  to  receive  the  sponges,  chalk,  &c. 

Circular  ventilators  are  placed  in  the  ceiling  of  each  school-room  and 
recitation  room  ;  three  in  each  school-room  of  3  ft.  in  diameter,  and  one  in 
each  recitation  room  of  2  ft.  in  diameter.  These  ventilators  are  solid  cov- 
ers of  wood,  hung  with  hinges,  over  apertures  of  corresponding  size,  and 
raised  or  lowered  by  means  of  cords  passing  over  pulleys,  through  the  ceil- 
ing into  the  room  below,  the  cords  terminating  in  loops,  wrhich  are  fastened 
to  hooks  in  the  side  of  the  room.  When  the  ventilators  are  raised,  the  im- 
pure air  escapes  into  the  garret,  the  ventilation  of  which  is  also  provided 
for  by  means  of  the  circular  windows  in  the  gable  ends,  which  turn  on 
pivots  in  the  center,  and  are  opened  or  shut  by  cords  passing  over  pulleys 
in  the  same  manner  as  the  ventilators. 

Each  school-room  is  warmed  by  a  furnace,  placed  directly  under  the  cen- 
ter of  the  space  in  front  of  the  desks,  the  hot  air  ascending  through  a  circu- 
lar aperture  of  2  ft.  in  diameter,  which  is  represented  upon  the  plan.  The 
smoke-pipe,  (of  galvanized  iron)  is  conducted  upward  through  the  center  of 
this  aperture,  and  thence,  after  passing  a  considerable  distance  into  tho 
school-room,  through  one  of  the  recitation  rooms  into  the  chimney,  which 
is  built  in  the  center  of  the  front  wall.  The  recitation  rooms  are  warmed 
by  means  of  apertures  at  the  top  and  bottom  respectively  of  the  partition.s 
which  separate  them  from  the  .school-rooms,  which  being  open  together, 
secure  a  rapid  equalization  of  temperature  in  all  the  rooms.  These  aper- 
tures are  fitted  to  be  closed,  with  revolving  shutters  above,  and  shutters 
hung  on  hinges  below. 

In  the  partition  wall  between  the  school-rooms,  is  a  clock  having  two 
faces,  and  thus  indicating  the  hour  to  the  occupants  in  each  room.  The 
clock  strikes  at  the  end  of  each  half  hour.  In  the  ante-rooms,  (marked  F. 
F,  on  the  plan  Fig.  1)  are  hooks  for  caps,  overcoats,  &c.  In  each  of  these 
rooms,  also,  there  is  a  pump  and  sink. 

In  the  lower  story,  there  are  two  primary  school-rooms  36.7  ft.  by  24£ 
ft.,  each  seating  60  children.  Each  child  has  a  chair  firmly  fixed  to  the 
floor,  but  no  desk.  In  the  rear  there  is  an  appropriate  shelf  for  books, 
for  each  pupil,  numbered  to  correspond  with  the  number  on  the  chair.  In 
front  of  the  school,  there  is  a  blackboard  occupying  the  distance  between  the 
doors,  and  a  desk,  at  which  the  several  classes  stand  in  succession,  and 
copy  appropriate  exercises  on  the  slate  from  the  blackboard. 

For  this  school-house,  with  all  its  completeness  of  arrangements  ami 
regulations,  the  city  of  Salem  is  indebted  mainly  to  the  indefatigable  exer- 
tions of  the  late  Mayor,  the  Hon.  Stephen  C.  Phillips.  During  the  three 
years  of  his  administration,  every  school-house  was  repaired  or  rebuilt, 
and  all  the  schools  brought  under  an  admirable  system.  On  leaving  his  of- 
fice, in  1842,  he  gave  to  the  city  for 
school  purposes,  his  salary  for 
three  years,  amounting  to  $2,400, 
which  has  been  applied  to  repair- 
ing and  refurnishing  the  High 
School  building,  which  is  now  a 
monument  of  his  taste  and  mu- 
nificence. 

The  High  School,  and  one  of 
the  new  primary  schools,  are  fur- 
nished with  u  Kimball's  Improved 
School  Chair,"  which  for  strength, 
comfort,  and  style  of  finish,  is  su- 
Hi"h  School  Chair  Per'or  to  an-v  °'her  now  before  the  Primary  School  Chan 
public. 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


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218 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  LATIN  AND  ENGLISH  HIGH  SCHOOLS,  SALEM. 

The  interior  of  this  building  is  fitted  up  in  a  style  of  ornamental  and  useful 
elegance  which  has  no  parrallel  in  this  country. 

The  Latin  School  is  believed  to  be  the  first  FREE  SCHOOL  established  in  the 
United  States,  and  probably  in  the  world,  where  every  person  within  certain 
geographical  limits,  and  possessing  certain  reqdisites  of  study,  has  an  equal 
right  of  admission,  free  of  cost.  It  was  founded  in  1(537,  and  has  continued 
without  interruption,  giving  a  thorough  preparation  to  students  for  college,  to 
the  present  day.  The  English  High  School  was  established  in  1827. 

The  walls  of  the  Latin  Grammar  School  are  enriched  and  adorned  with 
inscriptions  in  the  Greek  and  Latin  language  and  character.  These  are  not 
merely  apothegms  of  wisdom,  but  mementoes  of  duty  ;  they  are  h'tted  to 
inspire  the  pupils  with  noble  sentiments,  and  are  the  appropriate  "  Genius  oj 
the  Place" 

The  interior  of  the  English  High  School  is  adorned  in  a  manner  no  less 
appropriate  and  useful. 

In  the  center  of  the  ceiling  is  the  circle  of  the  zodiac,  29  feet  in  diameter. 
The  ventilator,  3£  feet  in  diameter,  represents  the  sun,  the  spots  being  desig- 
nated upon  the  nucleus  in  conformity  to  the  latest  telescopic  observation. 
The  divergence  of  the  solar  rays  is  also  fully  exhibited.  The  earth  is  re- 
presented in  four  different  positions,  indicating  the  four  seasons.  The  moon 
also  is  described  in  its  orbit,  and  its  position  so  varied  as  to  exhibit  its  four 
principal  changes.  The  globular  figure  of  the  earth  is  clearly  shown,  and 
lines  are  inscribed  upon  it  representing  the  equator,  tropics,  and  polar  circles. 
The  hour  lines  are  also  marked  and  numbered.  The  border  of  the  circle  re- 
presents upon  its  outer  edge  the  signs  of  the  zodiac,  with  their  names,  and 
within,  the  names  of  the  months.  The  signs  are  divided  into  degrees,  and 
the  months  into  days,  both  of  which  are  numbered.  The  thirty-two  points  of 
the  compass  are  marked  upon  the  inner  edge,  the  true  north  and  magnetic 
north  both  correctly  indicated,— the  variation  of  the  needle  having  been  as- 
certained by  a  recent  series  of  observations. 

The  circle  of  the  zodiac,  as  thus  described,  being  enclosed  within  a  square 
panel,  the  exterior  spaces  in  the  four  angles  are  filled  up  as  follows  : 

The  western  angle  exhibits  the  planet  Saturn,  with  his  rings  and  belts,  as 
seen  through  a  telescope,  and  his  true  size  in  proportion  to  the  sun,  supposing 
the  circle  of  the  zodiac  to  represent  the  size  of  the  sun.  The  eastern  angle 
exhibits  Jupiter,  with  his  belts,  of  a  size  similarly  proportionate.  The  other 
primary  planets  and  the  moon  are  described  according  to  their  relative  sizes. 
in  the  southern  angle.  In  the  northern  angle  is  a  succession  of  figures,  de- 
signed to  represent  the  varying  apparent  size  of  the  sun,  as  seen  from  the 
different  planets.  In  the  ceiling  there  are  also  two  oblong  panels,  one  towards 
the  western,  the  other  towards  the  eastern  extremity.  The  western  panel 
contains  a  diagram,  which  illustrates,  by  their  relative  position,  the  distance 
of  the  several  planets,  primary  and  secondary,  from  the  sun,  which  is  placed 
at  one  end  of  the  panel.  The  several  planets  are  designated  by  their  signs, 
and  the  figures,  placed  opposite  to  each,  show  how  many  millions  of  miles  it 
is  distant  from  the  sun.  The  satellites  of  the  Earth,  Jupiter,  Saturn,  and 
Herschel,  are  described  as  revolving  in  their  orbits  around  their  respective 
primaries.  The  eastern  panel  contains  a  diagram,  which  illustrates  the  theo- 
ry of  the  solar  and  lunar  eclipses.  The  moon  is  represented  in  different 
pans  of  the  earth's  shadow,  and  also  directly  between  the  earth  and  the  sun. 

Upon  the  four  sides  of  the  room,  in  the  space  above  the  windows  and 
doors,  eight  panels  are  described,  containing  as  many  diagrams,  which  illus- 
trate successively  the  following  subjects  : — 

1.  The  different  phases  of  the  moon.  2.  The  apparent,  direct,  and  retro 
grade  motions  of  Mercury  and  Venus.  3.  The  moon's  parallax.  4.  The 
commencement,  progress,  and  termination  of  a  solar  eclipse.  5.  The  di- 
minution of  the  intensity  of  light,  and  the  force  of  attraction  in  proportion  to 
the  increase  of  the  squares  of  distance.  6.  The  transit  of  Venus  over  the 
sun's  disc.  7.  The  refraction  of  the  rays  of  light  by  the  atmosphere,  caus- 
ing the  sun  or  other  celestial  bodies,  to  appear  above  the  horizon  when  actn- 


PUBLIC  HIGH  SCHOOL  HOUSE,  SALEM.  219 

ally  below  it.  8.  The  theory  of  the  tides,  giving  distinct  views  of  the  full 
and  neap  tide,  as  caused  by  the  change  of  position  and  the  relative  attraction 
of  the  sun  and  moon. 

The  two  small ;  panels  over  the  entrance  doors  represent,  respectively,  the 
remarkable  comets  of  1680  and  1811,  and  the  theory  of  cometary  motion  as 
described  in  the  plates  attached  to  Blunt's  "Beauty  of  the  Heavens." 

The  diagram  in  the  large  panel  upon  the  north  side  of  the  recitation  plat- 
form represents  the  relative  height  of  the  principal  mountains  and  the  rela- 
tive length  of  the  principal  rivers  on  the  globe.  The  mountains  and  rivers 
are  all  numbered,  and  scales  of  distance  are  attached,  by  which  the  heights 
and  lengths  can  be  readily  ascertained.  The  relative  elevation  of  particular 
countries,  cities  and  other  prominent  places,  the  limits  of  perpetual  snow,  of 
various  kinds  of  vegetation,  &c.,  are  distinctly  exhibited.  This  diagram  is  a 
copy  of  that  contained  in  Tanner's  Atlas. 

The  diagram  in  the  corresponding  panel  on  the  south  side  of  the  recitation 
platform  represents  a  geological  section,  the  various  strata  being  systematic- 
ally arranged  and  explained  by  an  index. 

The  space  between  the  windows  upon  the  north  and  south  sides  of  the 
room  are  occupied  by  inscriptions  in  which  the  diameter,  hourly  motion,  side- 
real period,  and  diurnal  rotation  of  the  several  primary  planets  and  the  earth's 
moon,  are  separately  stated,  according  to  calculations  furnished  for  the  pur- 
pose by  Professor  Peirce,  of  Cambridge.  The  hourly  motion  and  sidereal 
period  of  the  four  asteroids  are  also  stated  in  corresponding  inscriptions  upon 
the  western  side.  The  diameter  and  rotation  of  the  sun  are  inscribed  upon 
the  edge  of  the  circular  recess  beneath  the  ventilator. 

Over  the  frontispiece,  which  surmounts  the  recess  upon  the  teachers  ros- 
trum, is  a  beautifully  executed  scroll  bearing  the  inscription, 

"  ORDER  is  HEAVEN'S  FIRST  LAW." 

This  motto  may  be  regarded  as  equally  appropriate,  whether  viewed  as  ex- 
planatory of  the  celestial  phenomena  which  are  figured  upon  the  walls,  or  as 
suggesting  the  principle  which  shoula  guide  the  operations  of  the  school. 

The  clock  is  placed  within  the  recess,  upon  the  wall  of  which  the  course  of 
studies  prescribed  for  the  school,  and  arranged  into  two  divisions,  is  con- 
spicuously inscribed. 


Many  of  the  charity  schools  of  Holland  contain  paintings  of  no  incon- 
siderable excellence  and  value.  In  Germany,  where  every  thing,  (excepting 
war  and  military  affairs,)  is  conducted  on  an  inexpensive  scale,  the  walls  of 
the  school-rooms  were  often  adorned  writh  cheap  engravings  and  lithographs, 
of  distinguished  men,  of  birds,  beasts,  and  fishes  ; — and,  in  many  of  them,  a 
cabinet  of  natural  history  had  been  commenced.  And  throughout  all  Prus- 
sia and  Saxony,  a  most  delightful  impression  was  left  upon  my  mind  by  the 
character  of  the  persons  whose  portraits  were  thus  displayed.  Almost  with- 
out exception,  they  were  likenesses  of  good  men  rather  than  of  great  ones, — 
frequently  of  distinguished  educationists  and  benefactors  of  the  young, 
whose  countenances  were  radiant  with  the  light  of  benevolence,  and  the 
very  sight  of  which  was  a  moral  lesson  to  the  susceptible  hearts  of  children. 

In  the  new  building  for  the  "  poor  school"  at  Leipsic,  there  is  a  large  hall 
in  which  the  children  all  assemble  in  the  morning  for  devotional  purposes. 
Over  the  teacher's  desk,  or  pulpit,  is  a  painting  of  Christ  in  the  act  of  blessing 
little  children.  The  design  is  appropriate  and  beautiful.  Several  most  for- 
lorn-looking, half-naked  children  stand  before  him.  He  stretches  out  his 
arms  over  them,  and  blesses  them.  The  mother  stands  by  with  an  expres- 
sion of  rejoicing,  such  as  only  a  mother  can  feel.  The  little  children  look 
iovindy  up  into  the  face  of  the  Saviour.  Others  stand  around,  awaiting  his 
benediction.  In  the  back-ground  are  aged  men,  who  gaze  upon  the  spectacle 
with  mingled  love  for  the  children  and  reverence  for  their  benefactor. 
Hovering  above  is  a  group  of  angels,  hallowing  the  scene  with  their  pres- 
ence.— Mr  Mann's  Seventh  Annual  Report. 


220 


PUBLIC  SCHOOL  SOCIETY. 


PUBLIC  SCHOOL  SOCIETY  OF  NEW  YORK. 


Prior  to  1805.  the  only  schools  in  the  city  of  New  York  which  partook 
at  all  of  the  character  of  public  schools,  were  one  established  by  the 
"  Female  Association  for  the  Relief  of  the  Poor,"  in  1802,  and  those  sus- 
tained by  different  religious  denominations  for  the  gratuitous  education  ol 
the  children  of  their  own  members.  These  were  few,  feebly  sustained, 
and  the  course  of  instruction  altogether  inadequate. 

In  April,  1805,  on  the  petition  of  De  Witt  Clinton  and  other  individu- 
uals,  a  "  free  school"  was  incorporated  by  the  legislature  for  the  education 
of  children  who  did  not  belong  to,  and  were  not  provided  for  by  any  reli- 
gious society.  This  school  was  organized  in  May,  1806,  and  taught  on 
the  plan  then  recently  originated  by  Joseph  Lancaster. 

In  1808,  the  institution  was  enlarged  by  the  legislature  under  the  name 
of  the  "  Free  School  Society  of  the  City  of  New- York,"  and  the  city 
corporation  presented  a  site  for  a  school-house,  and  entrusted  to  its  keep- 
ing the  education  of  the  children  of  the  alms-house. 

In  1809,  the  first  edifice  was  completed  and  dedicated  to  its  future  pur- 
poses in  an  address  by  De  Witt  Clinton,  the  president  of  the  society. 

In  1815,  the  society  received  its  quota  ($3.708)  of  the  first  apportion- 
ment of  the  State  Fund  for  the  support  ol  Common  Schools. 

In  1821,  a  committee  of  the  society  were  instructed  to  correspond  with 
distinguished  educators,  in  Europe  and  the  United  States,  for  information 
on  the  subject  of  schools,  and  especially  the  education  of  the  poor.  This 
step  resulted  in  some  modifications  of  the  plans  of  the  society,  and  the 
methods  of  instruction  in  the  schools. 

In  1828,  the  first  primary  school  was  opened  in  the  Duane  street  build- 
ing, on  the  plan  of  the  infant  schools,  which  had  been  introduced  into  the 
large  cities  of  the  United  States,  under  voluntary  efforts.  The  result  was 
favorable.  It  drew  off  the  younger  scholars  from  the  other  schools  in  the 
same  building,  and  facilitated  the  instruction  and  government  in  both 
classes  of  schools.  This  school  was  for  a  time  under  the  joint  manage- 
ment of  the  society  and  a  committee  of  ladies  from  the  infant  school 
society.  At  this  time,  Mr.  Samuel  S.  Seton  was  employed  by  the  society 
as  an  agent  to  visit  the  families  of  the  poor,  to  make  known  the  benefiis 
of  the  schools  and  secure  the  punctual  attendance  of  delinquent  scholars. 
This  step  led  to  a  knowledge  of  various  abuses,  and  the  introduction  of 
several  improvements.  Mr.  S^eton  has  since  acted  as  the  Agent  of  the 
Society,  and  in  this  capacity  has  given  unity  to  all  of  Ihe  operations  of 
the  several  committees  of  the  Board. 

In  1828-29,  the  schools  of  the  public  school  society  were  placed  more 
on  the  basis  of  "  Common  Schools" — open  to  all,  not  as  a  matter  of 
charity,  but  of  right,  and  supported  .in  part  like  other  great  public  inter- 
ests, by  a  general  tax.  This  tax  was  one  eightieth  of  one  per  cent.,  and 
was  the  first  tax  raised  by  the  city  of  New  York,  for  the  support  of  Com- 
mon Schools;  the  memorial  by  which  the  attention  of  the  Common 
Council  was  called  to  the  subject  was  signed  principally  by  the  wealthiest 
citizens. 

In  the  winter  of  1832  a  large  committee  on  the  part  of  the  society,  was 
appointed  to  examine  into  the  condition  of  the  schools,  and  propose  such 
modification  and  improvement,  as  might  be  considered  judicious.  To  aid 
the  committee  with  the  experience  of  other  cities,  two  of  their  number 
were  deputed  to  visit  Boston  and  examine  the  school  system  arid  schools 
of  that  city.  This  committee  reported  certain  modifications,  Avhich  were 
concurred  in  by  the  board.  These  modifications  were  the  establishment 
of  primary  schools,  under  female  teachers,  for  the  elementary  classes, 
with  some  simple  apparatus  for  visible  illustration  ;  an  extension  of  the 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE.  221 

studies  in  the  upper  public  schools,  so  as  to  embrace  astronomy,  algebra, 
geometry,  trigonometry,  and  book-keeping ;  an  increase  of  the  salaries  of 
teachers,  the  substitution  of  assistant  teachers  for  certain  class  recitations 
and  reviews,  and  the  opening  of  recitation  rooms  for  this  purpose;  the 
more  extended  use  of  blackboard,  maps,  globes,  and  other  apparatus  ;  and 
the  establishment  of  evening  schools  for  apprentices,  and  such  as  leave 
school  at  an  early  age. 

In  1834,  owing  to  the  increase  of  the  primary  schools,  a  school  was 
opened  for  the  benefit  of  those  who  were  employed  as  monitors  in  that 
class  of  schools.  This  plan  has  been  extended  so  as  to  embrace  such 
pupils  of  the  older  class  of  the  upper  schools,  as  from  their  peculiar  taste. 
industry  and  proficiency,  could  be  recommended  as  monitors  or  teachers. 
While  in  these  normal  schools,  they  are  denominated  "  cadets,"  and  such 
as  are  properly  qualified  are  promoted  to  the  station  of  monitors,  under 
pay,  and  so  on  to  ':  passed  monitors,"  from  which  class  the  assistant 
teachers  are  to  be  selected.  These  schools  now  embrace  two  hundred 
pupils,  under  the  charge  of  nine  teachers,  and  have  already  furnished  the 
schools  with  a  number  of  teachers. 

In  1836,  owing  to  a  want  of  one  or  more  high  schools  in  the  system,  a 
number  of  scholarships  in  Columbia  College  and  the  University,  with 
their  preparatory  schools,  were  opened  by  those  having  the  management 
of  these  institutions,  for  such  scholars  of  the  public  schools  as  were  ad 
vanced  to  the  limit  of  the  instruction  there  provided.  In  1841-2,  simi- 
lar privileges  were  opened  in  the  Rutgers  Female  Institute,  for  a  certain 
number  of  girls. 

In  1842.  an  act  passed  the  legislature  which  altered  very  essentially 
the  system  of  public  schools  in  the  city  of  New  York,  by  providing  for  the 
appointment  of  School  Commissioners  in  the  several  wards,  who  together 
constitute  a  Board  of  Education. 

In  1844,  Mr.  Josiah  Holbrook's  system  of  scientific  exchanges  and 
a  plan  of  oral  instruction  in  the  natural  sciences,  were  introduced 
into  the  schools  of  the  Society.  The  teachers  were  authorized  to 
allow  the  pupils  to  occupy  a  limited  portion  of  time  weekly  in  pre- 
paring specimens  of  writing,  mapping  and  drawing,  with  a  view  to 
the  exchanging  of  such  specimens  for  those  of  other  schools  in  this  and 
other  states.  These  exchanges  of  the  results  of  mental  and  artistical 
labors  on  the  part  of  the  pupils,  have  excited  a  most  healthful  rivalry, 
greatly  favorable  to  the  development  of  their  mental  faculties,  while  its 
moral  influences  have  been  decidedly  good.  Not  the  least  among  its 
benefits  has  been  the  cultivating  of  a  taste  for  the  art  of  drawing,  so  ne- 
cessary and  useful  a  part  of  common  school  education,  particularly  in 
those  pupils  designed  for  mechanical  pursuits.  Connected  with  the  oper- 
ations here  alluded  to.  was  a  plan  of  instruction  by  short  oral  lectures  on 
the  natural  sciences,  from  objects  collected  and  placed  in  the  school  cabi- 
nets by  the  pupils  themselves,  formed  into  associations  or  "  school  lyce- 
ums." 

In  1847.  the  Free  Academy  was  established  by  the  Board,  after  an  ex- 
pression in  its  favor  by  a  direct  popular  vote.  Admission  into  the 
Academy  is  confined  to  those  who  have  been  pupils  in  the  public  schools. 
The  range  of  instruction  is  equal,  if  not  superior,  to  that  of  the  best 
academies  in  the  State. 

In  1848,  evening  schools  were  established  for  such  pupils  as  could 
not  attend  the  public  or  ward  schools  by  day. 

In  1853.  the  schools  and  property  of  the  Public  School  Society  were 
transferred  to  the  Board  of  Education,  and  the  Society,  after  years  of 
faithful,  disinterested,  and  useful  service,  in  building  up  an  improved 
system  of  public  instruction,  was  abolished. 


222  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

PLAN  AND  DESCRIPTION  OF  PUBLIC  SCHOOL,  No.  17,  NEW  YORK. 

The  following  plans  and  explanation  of  a  "  Public  School"  and  a  "  Primary 
School"  are  copied  from  the  "  Thirty-ninth  Annual  Report  of  the  Trustees 
of  the  Public  School  Society  of  New  York."  The  plans  after  which  the 
school-houses  of  this  Society  were  originally  constructed,  as  well  as  the 
methods  of  instruction  pursued  in  their  schools,  were  adopted  from  those 
recommended  by  Joseph  Lancaster,  and  the  British  and  Foreign  School 
Society.  These  plans  and  methods  have  been  from  time  to  time  essentially 
modified,  until  they  can  no  longer  be  characterized  as  Lancasterian  or  Moni- 
torial, but  the  plans  and  methods  of  the  Public  School  Society  of  New 
York.  There  are  two  grades  of  schools,  the  higher  called  the  Public 
Schools,  and  the  lower,  called  the  Public  Primary  Schools.  Those  schools 
of  the  primary  grade,  which  are  in  the  buildings  appropriated  to  the  higher 
schools,  are  designated  Primary  Departments,  to  distinguish  them  from  the 
Primaries  taught  in  separate  buildings.  The  system  of  instruction  pursued 
in  the  Primary  Departments  was  originally  the  Infant  School  system,  and 
still  retains  many  of  the  methods  of  that  system.  The  school-rooms  were, 
therefore,  constructed  and  furnished  in  reference  to  simultaneous  exercises 
of  the  whole  school,  to  oral  instruction  with  visible  illustrations,  and  to 
physical  movements  of  various  kinds. 

Public  School,  No.  17,  is  in  13th  Street,  between  the  7th  and  8th  Avenues, 
on  the  centre  of  a  lot  of  ground  100  feet  front  and  rear,  by  103|  feet  deep. 
The  main  building  is  42  feet  front,  and  80  feet  deep ;  the  stair  building  (in 
the  rear,)  is  21  by  14  feet.  The  main  building  is  49  feet  high,  from  the 
pavement  to  the  eaves.  The  first  story  of  the  front  of  the  main  building 
is  of  brown  stone,  polished,  as  is  also  the  bases  and  caps  of  the  pilasters. 
The  walls  are  all  of  brick  (including  the  front  fences) ;  the  front  being  of 
(what  are  called)  Philadelphia  pressed  bricks ;  the  front  cornice  is  of  wood, 
and  painted  white. 

The  windows  of  the  lower  story,  contain  each  30,  and  the  two  upper 
stories  each  40  panes  of  glass,  12  by  10  inches :  the  sashes  are  all  hung 
with  weights  and  cords,  so  that  they  may  be  raised  or  lowered  at  pleasure. 

The  rooms  are  all  wainscoted,  as  high  as  the  window  sills :  the  wain- 
scoting, doors,  and  desks  are  all  grained  in  imitation  of  oak :  the  doors, 
window  casings,  and  sashes  are  painted  white.  The  rooms  are  ventilated 
by  means  of  six  blinds,  2  by  3  feet,  being  placed  in  the  ceiling  between  the 
timbers,  and  two  or  three  bricks  being  left  out  opposite  the  blinds,  in  the  out- 
side walls. 

The  first  story  is  11  feet  6  inches  high  in  the  clear,  and  is  occupied  as  a 
Primary  Department,  for  both  boys  and  girls,  and  contains  seats  for  150 
children  in  the  Front  Room,  (marked  A  on  Fig.  1,)  and  200  on  the  Gallery, 
(marked  M  on  Fig.  1) ;  making  in  all  350  seats  in  this  department. 

The  second  story  is  occupied  as  the  Girls'  department;  the  room  is  15^ 
feet  high  in  the  clear,  and  contains  seats  for  252  scholars. 

The  third  story  is  occupied  as  the  Boys'  department ;  the  room  is  16^ 
feet  high  in  the  clear,  and  contains  seats  for  252  scholars  ;  making  in  all 
854  seats  in  the  building,  exclusive  of  the  seats  in  the  recitation  rooms. 

The  steps  in  the  stair  building,  by  which  the  scholars  enter  and  retire 
from  school,  are  of  blue  stone,  3  inches  thick  by  12  inches  wide,  and  are 
expected  to  last  as  long  as  any  part  of  the  building.  This  method  was 
adopted  to  avoid  the  necessity  of  putting  in  new  steps  every  few  years, 
(which  has  heretofore  been  necessary  where  wooden  steps  have  been  used,) 
and  also  to  lessen  the  noise  consequent  on  a  great  number  of  children  going 
either  up  or  down  wooden  steps,  at  the  same  time  ;  thus  far  the  experiment 
has  succeeded  admirably,  and  is  now  adopted  for  both  Public  and  Primarv 
Schools. 


NEW  YORK  PUBLIC  SCHOOL-HOUSE. 

Fig  1.     Ground  plan  of  Primary  Department,  yards,  &c. 


223 


A — Primary  School  room  39  by  38  feet. 
B— Infant          do       do     39  by  30  feet. 
0 — Room  for  brooms,  pails,  &c. 
J — Boys'  ward-robe,  161  by  8  feet. 
K— Girls'        do         12!  by  8  feet. 
M— Gallery,  32  by  11  feet— Seats  for 

200  children. 

X,  N— Desks,  each  16^  feet  long. 
O— Teachers'  table. 
L — Main  entrance. 
R.  R — Entrance  to  the  yard. 
U,  U          do      to  Primary  department. 
V — Stairs  to  Girls'  and  Boys'      do. 
3 — Scholars' entrance — Boys'      do. 
T          do  do  Girls'      do. 

Q— Sliding  doors— 28  by  9|  feet. 
P,  P— Stoves. 

Z,  Z — Flues  for  stove  pipes. 
I,  I— Play  ground,    102    by  26    feet; 


paved  with  brick.  F,  F  —  Privies, 
12  by  8  feet.  G,  G  —  Boxes  for 
sand  —  3  by  2\  feet. 

D,  D—  Wood-houses—  83  by  2^  feet,  and 
6?  feet  high;  the  front  of  which  is  made 
of  hemlock  strips,  4  by  2  inches,  set 
perpendicularly  2  inches  apart,  to  al 
low  a  free  circulation  of  air. 

E,  E  —  Roof  of  wood-houses  —  project- 
ing 3£  feet  beyond  the  front  of  the 
houses  ;    forming  a  shelter  for  the 
scholars  in  stormy  weather. 

H,  H  —  Gutters  of  blue  stone  to  con- 
duct the  waste  water  from  the  wood 
houses  and  yards  to  the  street. 

X  —  Court  Yard  —  8£  wide  ;  blue  stone 
flaggi 
block 
front  is  secured. 


ng.     Y,  Y—  Stone  foundation 
blocks,  to  which  the  iron  railing  in 


224 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


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NEW  YORK  PUBLIC  SCHOOL-HOUSE. 
PLAN  &c.,  OP  PRIMARY  SCHOOL,  NEW  YORK. 


225 


The  main  building  is  25  feet  front,  by  62J  feet  deep :  the  stair  building  is 
27  feet  by  1 1  feet  8  inches.  The  main  building  is  placed  6  or  8  feet  from 
the  line  of  the  street,  according  to  the  depth  of  the  lot.  The  walls  above 
the  ground  are  built  entirely  of  brick.  The  roof  is  of  tin ;  and  the  gutters 
of  copper.  The  lower  doors  and  windows  have  iron  bars  inserted,  for 
safety,  and  to  admit  a  free  circulation  of  air  in  the  summer,  but  are  closed 
with  sashes  in  the  winter. 

Fig.  1.     Ground  plan  of  first  story,  or  play-ground. 

This  story  is  7\  feet  in  the  clear,  with  a  partition  wall  through  the  middle 
to  give  separate  play-grounds  for  the  boys'  and  girls'  schools.  This  wall  is  8 
inches  thick ;  and  about  2J-  feet  of  the  upper  part  is  open  work  for  ventilation. 

C,  C  —  Stairways.  L,  F  —  Places  for  pine  (kindling)  wood  —  under 
stairs.  E. — Sand  box  for  both  departments,  h,  h — Piles  of  wood  about 
4|  feet  high.  I,  I — Lines  on  which  the  scholars  are  marshaled,  previous 
to  entering  school.  1,  1, 1 — Doors. 

Fig.  2  and  3.    Ground  plan  of  boys'  and  girls'  department,  each  60  by  32. 

D — Teachers'  platform  and  table,  (movable  rollers.)  d,  d — Desks  for 
scholars — the  black  dots  are  iron  chairs,  a — Cast  iron  lesson  stands — on 
which  two  lesson  boards  are  hung,  to  accommodate  classes  standing  on  the 
line  b,  b.  H — Class  Room,  g,  g,  g — Flues,  or  chimnies,  for  stove  pipes, 
f,  f,  f,  &c. — Air  flues,  or  recesses  for  ventilation,  extending  from  the  2d  story 
to  the  garret.  C — Stove— the  pipes  extend  from  the  stove  to  the  front  into 
the  flue,  and  also  to  the  rear. 


226 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE.. 


PLANS  AND  DESCRIPTION  OF  WARD  SCHOOL-HOUSE   No.  30,  IN  THB 
CITY  OF  NEW  YORK. 

Fig.  1.    FRONT  ELEVATION. 


Ward  School,  No.  30,  is  located  in  the  Sixteenth  Ward  of  the  City  of 
York,  on  the  north  side  of  Twenty-fourth  Street,  between  the  Seventh  and  Eighth 
Avenues.  The  school-house,  represented  in  Figures  1,  2,  3,  4,  and  completed 
in  1852,  has  a  front  of  54  feet  on  the  street,  and  is  95  feet  deep,  with  side 
wings,  each  18  by  25  feet.  It  was  built  after  plans  and  specifications  drawn  by 
T.  B.  Jackson,  Architect. 

The  basement  of  the  main  building  in  front  is  built  of  Connecticut  brown  stone, 
as  are  also  the  windows  and  door  trimmings,  finely  cut  and  polished.  The 
front  and  side  of  the  main  building,  as  well  as  the  front  of  the  wings,  are  built 
with  smooth  brick,  painted  and  sanded  brown-stone  color. 

The  basement  story  is  8  feet  high  in  the  clear,  and  except  such  portions  as  are 
used  for  class-rooms,  stairs,  water-closets,  &c.,  is  flagged  so  as  to  afford  a  shelter 
for  the  pupils  in  inclement  weather,  and  is  divided  by  a  wall  to  separate  the 


The  building  is  thoroughly  warmed  by  six  of  Culver's  patent  furnaces,  and 
ventilated  with  flues  in  the  walls,  with  openings  at  the  floor  and  ceiling  in  each 
room. 

The  second  and  third  stories  are  occupied  respectively  by  the  female  and  male 
departments  of  the  upper  school.  The  large  rooms  are  used  to  assemble  the 
whole  school  at  the  opening  in  the  morning,  and  are  so  arranged  that,  by  closing 
the  sliding  doors  they  can  be  used  as  separate  rooms,  which,  together  with  the 
other  class-rooms,  afford  ample  accommodations  for  the  several  classes  pursuing 
their  different  studies. 

The  croton  water  is  brought  into  the  basement  and  each  story  of  the  main 
building,  and  every  convenience  is  provided  for  comfort  and  cleanliness. 

The  stair-cases  afford  ample  egress,  and  are  so  constructed  as  to  provide  against 
all  accidents,  and  the  doors  are  hung  so  as  to  swing  outwards. 

The  windows  have  inside  folding  blinds. 


WARD  SCHOOL  HOUSE,  No.  30,  N.  Y. 
Fig.  2.    PLAN  OP  BASEMENT. 


227 


A  1 — Entrance  for  teachers  and  vis- 
itors. 

A  2 — Entrance  for  girls. 

A  3 — Entrance  for  boys. 

A  4 — Entrance  to  rooms  C. 

B — Principal  stair-case,  constructed 
with  one  wide  center  flight,  and  two 
side  flights  leading  to  the  top  story. 

C — Rooms  which  were  intended  as 
vestibules,  but  have  been  made  into 
elass-rooms,  and  fitted  up  with  seats. 


D — Boys'  stairs. 

E— Girls'  stairs. 

F — Culver's  furnaces  for  heating  the 
building. 

G — Stairs  to  primary  department  for 
children  in  the  gallery. 

H — Children's  water-closets. 

I — Teacher's  water-closets. 

K — Boys'  play-ground. 

L — Girls'  play-ground. 


228 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


The  first  floor,  divided  by  folding  doors  into  two  large  rooms  and  four  class- 
rooms, are  occupied  by  the  primary  department. 


Fig.  3.    PLAN  OF  FIRST  STORY. 


A — Principal's  desk. 

B — Class-rooms,  fitted  up  with  a 
platform  2  feet  6  inches  wide,  running 
round  three  sides  of  the  room,  and  two 
rows  of  benches. 


C — Galleries  for  small  children. 
D — Desks  in  principal  school-room. 
E — Teacher's  tables  in  class-rooms. 
F — Furnace  registers  for  warm  air. 


No.  5.    Ross*  PRIMARY  DOUBLK  DESK  AND  CHAIRS. 


WARD  SCHOOL-HOUSE,  No.  30,  N.  Y. 
Fig.  4.    PLAN  or  SECOND  AND  THTBD  STORT. 


229 


A — Principal's  desk.  B — Class-rooms,  fitted  up  in  the  same  manner  as  de- 
scribed in  the  primary  department.  C — Stairs  to  yards.  D — Desks  in  principal 
school-rooms.  E — Teacher's  tables  in  class-rooms.  F — Furnace  registers,  where 
the  warm  air  is  admitted  in  the  rooms. 

No.  6.    Ross'  PRIMARY  DOUBLE  DESK  AND  CHAIR. 


230 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


NEW  YORK  WARD  SCHOOL,  No.  29.  231 

PLANS  AND  DESCRIPTION  OF  WARD  SCHOOL}  No.  29,  IN  THE  CITY  OP 
NEW  YORK. 

"Ward  School,  No.  29,  is  situated  on  the  southeast  corner  of  North  Moore  and 
Varick  Streets,  in  the  Fifth  Ward  of  the  City  of  New  York.  The  school-house, 
represented  in  Figures  1,  2,  3,  was  erected  in  1852,  after  designs  and  specifica- 
tions by  T.  B.  Jackson,  Esq.,  Architect,  New  York,  to  accommodate  a  primary 
department  of  500  pupils,  between  the  ages  of  four  and  eight  years ;  and  two 
departments,  one  for  500  girls,  between  the  ages  of  eight  and  fourteen,  and  one 
for  the  same  number  of  boys,  of  the  same  age.  The  girls  enter  on  North  Moore 
Street,  and  the  boys  on  Varick  Street. 

The  new  building  has  a  front  on  North  Moore  Street  of  75  feet,  and  on  Varick 
Street  of  87  feet.  The  basement,  ante-bases,  and  window  trimmings  are  of  Con- 
necticut free-stone,  cut  in  the  finest  manner  •,  and  the  brickwork  is  painted  and 
sanded  brown-stone  color. 

The  basement,  the  floor  of  which  is  one  foot  above  the  level  of  the  side  walk,  is 
ten  feet  high  in  the  clear,  and,  except  such  portions  as  are  used  for  furnaces,  com- 
mittee room,  library,  &c.,  is  appropriated  to  a  play-ground,  for  the  pupils,  and  is 
divided  by  a  wall  to  separate  the  sexes,  affording  a  shelter  hi  unclouded  weather. 

The  first  floor  is  14  feet  high  in  the  clear,  and  is  fitted  up  into  a  large  school- 
room, 70  feet  by  76,  with  infant  class-rooms,  for  the  primary  department,  and 
will  accommodate  over  500  pupils. 

The  second  and  third  stories,  each  14  feet  high,  are  divided  in  a  similar  man- 
ner, the  former  to  accommodate  300  girls,  and  the  latter  300  boys.  One  of  the 
class-rooms  on  each  floor  is  fitted  up  with  seats  and  desks,  to  accommodate  an 
advanced  class  of  pupils. 

The  building  is  warmed  by  three  of  Culver's  Furnaces,  placed  in  the  basement : 
and  each  school-room  and  class-room  is  ventilated  by  one  or  more  flues,  carried 
up  in  the  walls,  with  openings  at  the  floor  and  ceilings,  controlled  by  registers, 
into  which  the  vitiated  air  escapes.  These  flues  discharge  into  two  larger  flues 
in  the  attic,  which  are  carried  above  the  roof,  and  are  surmounted  by  Emerson's 
Ejectors. 

The  furniture  throughout  all  the  rooms,  was  manufactured  by  Joseph  L.  Ross, 
ol  Boston.  The  desks  and  seats  in  the  primary  department  are  of  four  different 
sizes,  and  are  made  after  the  pattern  represented  in  Figs.  6  and  7,  on  page  267. 
The  desks  and  chairs  in  the  two  upper  rooms,  (the  wood-work  of  cherry,  and  the 
standards  of  cast-iron,)  are  of  six  different  sizes,  and  are  similar  to  those  reoresented 
in  Fig.  6,  on  page  237. 

Each  desk  has  a  cast-iron  box,  with  a  lid  to  receive  a  glass  ink-well. 


The  Croton  water  is  brought  into  each  story ;  and  in  the  basement  every  con- 
venience for  cleanly  habits  are  provided,  such  as  scrapers,  mate,  washbasins,  towels, 
brooms,  &c. 

There  are  three  stair-cases,  and  each  is  so  constructed  as  to  afford  ample  egress, 
and  to  provide  against  all  accidents ;  and  the  doors  are  hung  so  as  to  swing 
outwards. 

The  windows  are  furnished  with  inside  blinds,  having  revolving  slats,  so  that 
the  amount  of  light  can  be  easily  regulated. 


232 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 
Fig.  2.    BASEMENT. 


A,  1  —  Teachers  and  visitors'  en- 
trance. 

A,  2 — Girls'  entrance. 

A,  3 — Boys'  entrance. 

B — Committee  room. 

C— Library. 

D — Furnace  rooms. 

E — Girls'  vestibule  and  play-ground. 

F — Culver's  furnaces. 

G — Boys'  play-ground. 

H,  1 — Teachers'  and  visitors'  stair- 
case. 


H,  2 — Girls'  stair-case. 
H,  3 — Boys'  stair-case. 

a,  a,  a — Book-cases. 

b,  b — Water-closets. 

C,  C— Teachers'  closets. 

d,  d — Croton  water,  with  conven- 
iences for  drinking,  and  cleanliness. 

The  three  stories  of  the  building 
above  the  basement  are  each  divided 
into  one  large  school-room,  and  five  re- 
citation rooms. 


WARD  SCHOOL  HOUSE,  NO.  28,  N.  T. 


233 


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A — Large  school-room,  with  Ross' 
desks. 

B — Recitation  or  class-rooms,  fitted 
up  with  platforms,  and  two  rows  of 


benches  running  round  three  sides  of 
each  room. 

a — Principal's  desk  in  the  alcove,  the 
floor  of  which  is  raised  16  inches  above 
the  floor  of  the  school-room. 

The  Female  and  Male  Departments,  fitted  up  in  the  same  manner,  with  the 
exception  of  the   N. 
advanced  class. 


b,  b — Teachers'  tables  in  class-rooms. 

c,  c — Book-cases. 

n,  n — Niches  for    globes,  busts,  or 
statues. 


f,  f— Registers,  supplying  warm  air 
from  furnaces. 

v,  v — Ventilation  flues. 


class-rooms,  which  have   desks  to  accommodate  an 


'• 


FREE  ACADEMY,  NEW  YORK.  235 

PLAN  AND  DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  FREE  ACADEMY  IN  THE  CITY  OP 

NEW  YORK. 

The  Free  Academy  is  situated  on  the  S.  E.  corner  of  Twenty- third  street  and 
Lexington  avenue,  in  the  upper  part  of  the  city,  being  convenient  of  access 
from  all  the  great  thoroughfares.  The  style  of  architecture,  in  which  the  build- 
ing is  erected,  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  town  halls  and  colleges  of  the  14th  cen- 
tury, in  Europe.  This  style  attained  its  greatest  perfection  in  the  Low  Coun- 
tries, and  especially  in  Belgium,  which  at  that  period  was  the  great  seat  of 
learning,  science  and  the  arts,  as  well  as  the  great  centre  of  the  commercial 
enterprise  of  Europe.  It  was  the  opinion  of  the  architect,  therefore,  apart  from 
the  economy  in  construction,  of  the  Gothic  style,  when  properly  managed,  that 
this  style  would  be  peculiarly  appropriate  for  the  High  School  of  the  city  of 
New  York,  and  was  also  well  adapted  to  the  materials  of  which  it  was  pro- 
posed to  construct  the  building,  many  of  the  old  halls  and  colleges  being  built 
of  brick.  The  architect,  Mr.  Renwick,  of  New  York,  in  a  letter  to  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  Board  of  Education,  remarks, 

"  I  am  confident  that  the  style  I  have  adopted  is,  at  the  same  time  the  strong- 
est, the  cheapest,  and  the  one  best  adapted  to  the  purposes  of  heat  and  ven- 
tilation, being  the  only  one,  except  the  Norman,  in  which  chimneys  and  flues 
become  ornamental,  and  a  roof  of  high  pitch,  necessary  for  external  beauty, 
and  capable  of  being  intersected  by  dormer  windows,  which  latter  will  add  to 
the  beauty  of  the  building  and  to  the  convenience  of  lighting  and  ventilating 
the  great  hall,  in  the  roof. 

"  As  you  (the  Board)  have  proposed,  with  perfect  correctness,  to  make  the 
great  hall  in  the  Gothic  style,  for  it  can  be  in  no  other  order,  placed  in  such  a 
position  immediately  beneath  the  roof,  and  is  capable  of  being  made  highly  or- 
namental in  such  a  place,  I  was  of  opinion  that  the  exterior  of  the  whole  build- 
ing should  accord  with  it,  as,  if  it  were  planned  in  any  other  style,  it  would  ap- 
pear inharmonious,  and  therefore  produce  an  unpleasant  effect  on  the  mind  by 
its  incongruity.  The  height  of  the  building,  too,  the  great  pitch  of  thereof,  and 
the  numerous  chimneys  and  ventilating  flues  necessary  to  render  the  arrange- 
ment perfect,  would  entirely  preclude  the  adoption  of  the  Grecian,  Roman,  or 
modern  Italian  styles,  with  any  good  effect,  apart  from  their  being  much  more 
expensive,  and  less  beautiful. 

"  1  have  entered  at  length  into  the  reasons  which  guided  me  in  the  adoption 
of  a  style  for  the  building,  because  it  might  at  first  sight  appear  expensive,  and 
therefore  improper  for  such  an  institution.  You  will  at  once  perceive  the  great 
strength  which  the  buttresses  impart  to  the  building,  and  the  consequent  reduc- 
tion in  the  thickness  of  the  walls.  These  buttresses  will  also  serve  for  ventila- 
ting flues,  which  in  such  a  building  should  be  of  large  size,  in  order  to  prevent, 
as  far  as  possible,  any  friction  from  interfering  with  the  passage  of  the  currents 
of  air,  an  end  which  can  only  be  attained  by  large  and  smooth  flues." 

The  dimensions  of  the  building  are  as  follows  :  The  length  of  the  building, 
exclusive  of  all  projections,  is  125  feet,  and  the  breadth  80  feet.  The  height,  to 
the  eaves,  65  feet,  and  to  the  top  of  the  gable,  100  feet.  The  height  of  the  tow- 
ers, 1 10  feet 

The  building  is  divided  into  a  basement,  three  stories,  and  a  great  hall  under 
the  roof.  The  basement  is  nine  feet  in  height,  and  is  arched  to  afford  ground 
for  exercise  in  bad  weather.  In  it,  also,  are  the  janitors'  lodgings,  the  chemical 
laboratory,  and  the  closets  for  the  hats  and  clothes  of  the  students.  The  first, 
second  and  third  stories  are  divided  into  four  great  rooms  by  two  wide,  spacious 
halls,  which  are  carried  through  the  centre  of  the  building  longitudinally  and 
transversely.  Two  of  these  rooms,  on  each  floor,  are  again  divided,  affording 
smaller  rooms  for  recitation,  &c.  Above  these  stories  is  the  great  hall,  125 
feet  long  by  GO  feet  in  breadth,  divided  by  the  king  and  queen  posts  of  the  roof, 
which  are  made  ornamental,  into  three  aisles,  the  centre  one  of  which  is  40  feet 
in  height,  and  the  two  side  aisles  each  20  feet  in  height.  The  ceiling  of  this 
room  is  of  wood  immediately  under  the  roof,  of  which  it  forms  part,  and  it  is 
ornamented  with  carved  ribs'of  wood,  in  the  manner  of  the  old  college  halls  at 
Oxford  and  Cambridge.  It  is  lighted  by  windows  at  the  ends  and  by  dormers 
in  the  roof,  and  when  finished,  will  probably  be  the  largest  and  finest  collegiate 
haL  in  this  country. 


236 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE, 


A.  Iron  or  brick  ash-pit. 

B.  Ash-pit  door. 

C.  Pot,    or    coal    Burner, 

with  or  without  soap- 
stone  lining. 

D.  Fire  chamber. 

E.  Lower    half  of  tubular 

drum. 

F.  Elliptical  tubes. 

G.  Upper    half  of   tubular 

drum. 

H.  Top  of  tubular  drum. 

I.    Cap  and  smoke-pipe. 

K.  Flat  radiator. 

L.  Water  basin   or  evapo- 
rator. 

M.  Smoke  pipe  to  chimney. 

N.  Conductors  of  hot  air. 

N.  Cold  air  conductor  and 
chamber. 

P.  Feed  door. 

d.  Hot  air  chamber. 

R.  Damper  in  globe    with 
rod  attached. 

S.  Pendulum      valve      for 
cleaning. 

H—  Shows  the  direc- 
tion of  the  currents  ol" 
hot  or  cold  air. 


Fig.  3.— CULVER'S  FURNACE. 


FREE  ACADEMY,  NEW  YORK. 


237 


The  mode  of  wanning  and  ventilating  the  several  apartments  of  the  Free 
Academy  can  be  easily  understood  by  consulting  Figures  2,  3  and  4.  Four  of 
Culver's  furnaces  are  set  in  the  basement,  as  shown  in  Fig.  3.  A  large  quantity 
of  fresh  air  from  out  of  doors,  after  being  warmed  by  these  furnaces,  is  carried 
up  to  the  several  stories  by  pipes  in  the  division  walls,  (Fig.  2.)  and  is  admitted 
into  the  rooms  at  a  convenient  point,  as  indicated  in  Figures  5  and  6.  The  air 
of  each  room,  as  it  becomes  vitiated  by  respiration,  is  discharged  by  openings 
near  the  ceiling  into  the  buttresses,  which  are  constructed  hollow  and  finished 
smooth,  so  as  to  constitute  large  ventilating  flues.  Each  opening  is  fitted  with 
one  of  Culver's  Ventilators  or  Registers,  with  cords  attached,  by  which  the  ca- 
pacity of  the  opening  for  the  discharge  of  vitiated  air  can  be  enlarged  and  di- 
minished at  the  pleasure  of  the  teacher.  The  practical  working  of  the  furnaces 
and  flues  for  ventilation,  secures  the  object  aimed  at — a  genial  and  pure  atmos- 
phere at  all  times. 


Fig.  3. — BASEMENT  FLOOR. 


The  above  cut  gives  an  incorrect  view  of  the  exterior  of  the  building,  but 
good  idea  of  the  internal  arrangement  of  the  basement  story. 


238 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


Fig.  5.— PLAN  or  FIRST  STORY. 


Nos.  1.  Office  of  Principal. 

2.  Library. 

3.  Depository  of  Text-Books. 

4.  Class  Room  in  Mathematics. 
6.  Professor  in  French. 

7  and  9.  Lecture  Room. 
8.  Class  Room  in  Mathematics. 
10.  Professor  of  History  and  Belles  Letters. 


FREE  ACADEMY. 


239 


Fig.  6.— PLAN  or  SKCOND  STORY. 


Nos.  13  and  15.  Professor  of  Civil  Engineering. 
12  and  14.  Study  Hall. 

16.  Class  Room  for  Tutor  in  Mathematics. 

17.  Study  Hall. 

18.  Class  Room  for  Tutor  in  Moral  Philosophy. 
19  and  21.  Drawing  Hall. 

20.  Professor  of  Ancient  Languages. 


240 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


Fig.  7.— PLAN  or  THIRP  STORT. 


Nos.  24.  Study  Hall. 

25.  Professor  of  Mathematics. 

26.  Class  Room  for  Tutor  of  Moral  Philosophy. 

27.  Study  Hall. 

28.  Class  Room  for  Tutor  of  Rhetoric. 
29  and  31.  Study  Hall. 

30.  Class  Room  for  Tutor  of  Rhetoric. 
32.  Professor  of  English  Literature. 


242 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE.  243 

PLANS  AND  DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  ACADEMY  BUILDING,  ROME,  N.  Y. 

We  are  indebted  to  Edward  Huntington,  Esq.,  for  the  following  plans 
and  description  of  the  new  Academy  building  recently  erected  in  Rome 
N.  Y.,  under  his  supervision.  The  building  is  70  feet  by  44  feet  on  the 
ground. 


FIG.  Z.    BASEMENT. 


A— Lecture-room  and  Chapel.    B— Laboratory.    C,  C— Furnaces. 
D,  D,  D— Janitor's  rooms.    E — Entry.    F— Hall. 


244 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


The  building  was  erected  in  1848.  on  a  lot  198  by  170  feet,  on  the  corner  of 
Court  and  James  streets,  fronting  the  public  square,  and  is  of  brick,  70  by  44 
feet  on  the  ground.  The  basement  wall,  up  to  the  water  table,  is  of  stone,  laid 
in  hydraulic  cement.  The  roof  is  covered  with  tin,  laid  in  white  lead. 

The  basement,  10  feet  high  in  the  clear,  contains  a  lecture-room  (which 
serves  also  as  a  chapel,)  26i  by  40  feet,  with  comfortable  seats  to  accommodate 
conveniently  200  pupils.  The  floor  descends  2  feet  from  the  rear  of  the  room 
to  the  platform,  giving  12  feet  height  immediately  in  front  of  it.  A  laboratory, 
12  by  15^  feet,  adjoins  the  lecture-room,  with  which  it  communicates  by  a  door 
at  the  end  of  a  platform.  The  remainder  of  the  basement  floor  is  occupied  by 
the  furnaces  for  warming  the  building,  and  by  the  rooms  of  the  Janitor. 

The  FIRST  FLOOR  is  occupied  by  the  male  department,  and  consists  of  a 
school-room  about  30  by  54  feet,  and  nearly  15  feet  in  clear  height,  with  two 
recitation-rooms,  entries,  &c.  There  are  62  desks,  each  four  feet  long  and  ac- 
commodating two  pupils. 

On  the  SECOND  FLOOR  are  the  girls'  school-room,  about  28  by  40  feet,  with 
seats  for  76  pupils,  2  recitation-rooms,  library,  hall,  and  room  occupied  by 
Primary  department.  There  is  a  large  skylight  in  the  centre  of  the  girls' 
school-room,  and  another  in  the  library.  The  rooms  are  15  feet  in  height. 

The  building  is  thoroughly  and  uniformly  warmed  by  two  furnaces  in  the 
basement,  and  a  change  of  air  is  secured  by  ventilators  at  the  top  of  the  rooms, 
and  also  near  the  floor,  opening  into  flues  which  are  carried  up  in  the  chim- 
neys. The  warmth  imparted  by  the  smoke  which  passes  up  in  the  adjoining 
flues  secures  a  good  draft.  In  the  upper  story  additional  means  of  ventilation 
are  furnished  by  the  skylights,  which  can  be  partially  opened. 

The  desks  are  of  varnished  cherry,  similar  in  form  to  Ross's 


Ross's  school  desk. 


FIG.  5. 


The  supports  are  of  wood,  however,  instead  of  cast-iron,  and  the  seats  are 
easy  Windsor  chairs.  Both  seats  and  desks  are  firmly  secured  to  the  floor  by 
small  iron  knees  and  screws. 

The  school  and  recitation  rooms  are  all  furnished  with  large  slates  set  in 
the  wall,  in  the  room  of  blackboards. 

The  teachers'  desks  in  the  school-rooms  are  similar  to  Fig.  6. 

FIG.  6. 


The  whole  cost  of  the  building,  including  furnaces,  scholars'  desks  and 
chairs,  slates  and  inkstands,  was  about  6,000  dollars. 


ACADEMY  AT  ROME,  N.  Y. 


245 


FIG.  3.    PLAN  OF  FIRST  FLOOR. 


A — Boys'  School-room,  with  124  seats. 
B,  B— Recitation-rooms. 
C — Dressing-room. 


D— Closet  for  Apparatus. 
E — Entrance  for  Boys. 
F — Entrance  for  Girls. 


FIG.  4.    PLAN  OP  SECOND  FLOOR. 


U  J 


1 

B 

L 

JS 

,  s     E 
•''/        V\ 
i       F 

Vy               s*   *' 

G 

B 

U 

r 

DODOQD: 


A— Girls'  School-room,  with  76  seats. 
B,  B— Recitation-rooms. 
C — Dressing-room. 


D— Primary  Department. 

E— Library,  lighted  by  skylight, 

F— Skylight  in  ceiling. 


246 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


SYSTEM  OP  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS  IN  PHILADELPHIA. 


The  system  of  public  schools  in  Philadelphia  has  grown  up.  from  very 
small  beginnings,  into  its  present  gigantic  yet  harmonious  proportions,  in 
a  comparatively  brief  period  of  time,  and  is  a  monument  of  the  disinter- 
ested zeal,  intelligence,  and  fidelity  of  the  men  who  have  been  intrusted 
with  its  administration,  and  of  the  liberality  of  the  citizens  generally,  in 
providing  the  means  for  its  support  and  expansion. 

Prior  to  1818,  a  system  of  charity  schools  was  maintained  by  a  society 
of  benevolent  individuals,  which  had  been  aided  by  a  small  appropria- 
tion from  the  city,  from  1808.  In  these  schools  2.600  poor  children  were 
educated  in  1817.  at  the  cost  of  $11  per  scholar. 

In  1818.  against  violent  and  interested  opposition  from  various  quar- 
ters, the  present  system  was  commenced,  and  the  first  school  opened  in 
a  hired  room  under  the  Lancastarian  method  of  instruction. 

In  1819,  there  were  six  schools  established,  one  school-house  built,  ten 
teachers  employed,  and  2,845  children  instructed  in  reading,  writing, 
and  arithmetic,  at  an  aggregate  expense  of  $23,049  45,  of  which  near 
$19.000  was  invested  in  land,  and  building,  and  furniture. 

In  1823,  the  first  school  for  colored  children  was  established. 

In  1826.  there  were  4.144  children  in  nine  schools,  at  an  aggregate 
expense  of  $22.444. 

In  1833.  an  infant  model  school  was  organized.  There  were  at  this 
date  5,768  children  in  thirteen  schools,  under  twenty-three  teachers,  in- 
structed at  an  aggregate  expense  of  $53.042.  of  which  $23,000  was  for 
school  buildings  and  fixtures. 

In  1836,  twenty-six  primary  schools  were  established.  A  committee 
of  the  board  of  Controllers,  visited  the  public  schools  of  Boston  and  New 
York,  and  at  their  suggestion  the  system  of  instruction  was  modified. 
and  additional  teachers,  at  a  higher  compensation,  were  employed,  and 
the  services  of  juvenile  monitors  dispensed  with.  At  this  date,  11.127 
children  were  instructed,  in  forty-eight  schools  of  different  grades,  at  the 
aggregate  expense  of  $75,017.  of  which  $23.000  was  for  land  and  build- 
ings. Thirteen  school-houses  had  been  erected  up  to  this  date. 

In  1837,  sixty  primary  schools  were  in  operation,  with  nearly  six  thou- 
sand scholars.  These  schools  were  eminently  successful  in  gathering 
up  the  young  children  who  would  otherwise  not  be  at  school,  and  in  re- 
lieving the  higher  schools  of  a  class  of  pupils,  who  only  embarrassed  the 
teachers  and  retarded  the  more  advanced  learners  During  this  year,  the 
corner  stone  of  the  Central  High  School  building  was  laid,  with  an  as- 
tronomical observatory  attached.  The  monitorial  system  was  still  fur- 
ther dispensed  with  or  modified.  At  this  date,  17,000  children  were  in 
all  the  schools,  and  the  expenditure  amounted  to  $191.830,  of  which 
$112,000  was  for  land,  buildings,  and  furniture.  Of  this  last  amount, 
$89,000  was  received  from  an  appropriation  by  the  State  of  $500.000 
for  school-houses. 

In  1830,  the  Central  High  School  was  opened,  with  professors  in  vari- 
ous branches  of  Classical.  English,  Belles  Letters.  Mathematical,  As- 
tronomical, and  Physical  sciences,  and  before  the  close  of  the  year,  re- 
organized on  apian  submitted  by  President  Bache.  of  the  Girard  College 
of  orphans.  More  than  18.000  children  were  in  regular  attendance  at 
school,  and  the  expenditure  for  the  year  amounted  to  $188,741,  of  which 
$82,000  was  for  land,  buidings,  and  furniture.  The  ordinary  expense 
of  the  system  was  about  $6  Ibr  each  pupil. 

In  1848,  a  Normal  School  was  opened  under  the  charge  of  A.  T.  W. 
Wright,  "for  the  thorough  training  of  female  teachers  in  such  practical 
exercises  as  will  discipline  and  develope  the  mind,  adorn  and  elevate  the 
character,  insure  the  best  modes  of  imparting  knowledge,  and  prevent 
fruitless  experiments,  manifold  mistakes,  and  inseparable  loss  of  time." 


PUBLIC  SCHOOLS  IN  PHILADELPHIA.  247 

In  1850,  evening  or  night  schools  were  opened  by  the  Controllers  in 
different  parts  of  the  city,  to  accomodate  those  to  whom  circumstances 
may  have  denied  the  advantages  of  education  in  early  life,  as  well  as 
to  enable  those  whose  necessities  will  not  permit  to  attend  the  day 
school,  to  share  the  benefits  of  that  mental  training  so  necessary  to  fit 
them  to  become  useful  citizens.  The  attendance  in  these  schools,  dur- 
ing the  winter  of  1852-53.  was  7.772 ;  of  which  number,  5.776  were 
males,  and  1.995  females.  The  average  age  of  the  males  was  17  years 
4  months,  and  of  the  females  16  years  9  months.  Of  the  whole  number, 
3.235  were  born  in  Philadelphia ;  1,452  in  other  parts  of  the  United 
States;  and  3,085  were  of  foreign  birth.  Of  the  7,772.  when  admitted, 
943  could  not  read,  1,581  could  not  write,  and  1.943  were  entirely  igno- 
rant of  the  use  of  figures.  The  cost  of  supporting  the  night  schools,  in 
the  winter  of  1852-53.  was  816.907  or  $2.17^  for  each  pupil. 

The  system  of  public  instruction  embraced,  in  1853 : 

I.  Classified  schools,  viz. :  152  primary  schools;  35  secondary  schools ; 
55  grammar  schools ;  and  1  high  school  for  boys — each  grade  having 
its  appointed  course  of  study  and  requisites  of  admission. 

II.  Unclassified  schools,  viz. :  42  day  schools  and  30  night  schools, 
scattered  through  the  less  populous  portions  of  the  district,  or  where  the 
habits  or  circumstances  of  the  population  are  not  favorable  to  regularity 
of  attendance.     The  pupils  of  these  schools  are  classified,  but  not  accord- 
ing to  the  rules  applicable  to  the  schools  in  the  first  division. 

III.  Normal  school,  for  training  female  teachers  for  the  different  grades 
of  schools. 

The  attendance  in  all  the  schools  was  as  follows :  in  the  2S6  day 
schools.  50.085.  of  which  number  25.836  were  males,  and  24,249  females; 
in  the  20  night  schools  7,772.  of  which  number  5.776  were  males,  and 
1.990  females — making  an  aggregate  attendance  of  57.857  seholars. 

The  entire  expense  of  supporting  the  system,  for  the  year  ending  June 
30,  1853.  including  text-books  and  stationary,  was  $386,122.32,  exclusive 
of  the  sum  of  $25,181.  paid  for  rent  of  ground  and  houses,  and  of  the 
estimated  interest  on  $932,290.02,  the  cost  of  grounds  and  buildings  now 
belonging  to  the  Controllers.  Of  the  entire  expense,  the  sum  of  $31,307 
was  derived  from  the  State  appropriation,  and  the  balance  from  a  tax 
on  the  property  of  the  city. 

Exclusive  of  rent  and  interest  on  cost  of  school-houses,  the  cost  of 
educating  57.857  pupils,  in  the  day  and  night  schools,  was  $6.67  for  each 
pupil ;  and  including  rent  and  interest.  $7.06. 

The  cost  of  supporting  the  unclassified,  primary,  secondary,  Grammar, 
High,  and  Normal  Schools,  with  an  attendance  of  50.085  pupils,  was 
$358.714.70.  including  the  cost  of  books  and  stationary  furnished  by  the 
Controllers,  and  exclusive  of  the  rent  of  school-room  and  the  interest 
on  the  cost  of  grounds  and  buildings— or  $7.16  to  each  pupil. 

The  cost  of  the  night  schools,  with  an  attendance  of  7,772  pupils,  was 
$16.907.02.  or  $2.m  to  each  pupil. 

The  cost  of  the  High  School  \\ith  an  attendance  of  519  pupils,  was 
$17.449.53.  or  $32.97  tor  each  pupil. 

The  cost  of  Normal  School,  and  School  of  Practice,  with  519  pupils, 
(including  pupil-teachers  and  children,)  was  $6.796.72,  or  $10.98  to  each 
pupil. 

The  cost  of  the  grammar,  secondary,  primary,  and  unclassified  schools, 
with  an  attendance  of  49.052  pupils,  was  $335,468.45,  or  $6.84  to  each 
pupil. 

The  cost  of  furnishing  books  and  stationary,  included  in  the  foregoing 
calculations,  was  75\  cents  for  each  pupil  for  the  year. 

The  progress  and" influence  of  the  Central  High  School,  is  thus  set 
forth  by  Dr.  Hart,  its  present  accomplished  principal.  [See  page  258.] 


\ 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  IN  PHILADELPHIA. 


249 


AND  DESCRIPTION  OF  JEFFERSON  GRAMMAR  SCHOOL-HOUSE  IN 
PHILADELPHIA. 

Jefferson  Grammar  School  is  located  in  Fifth -street  above  Poplar,  and  was 
erected  in  1836.  The  lot  is  100  feet  on  the  street,  and  120  feet  deep,  and  the 
space  not  occupied  by  the  building  and  the  walks,  is  planted  with  the  choicest 
shrubs  and  flowers,  which  are  kept  in  beautiful  condition  by  the  teacher  and 
pupil.  For  these,  the  fountain,  and  other  embellishments,  the  children  and  the 
public  owe  a  large  debt  of  gratitude  to  Daniel  S.  Beideman  Esq.,  who  has  thus 
introduced  a  new  element  of  physical,  moral,  esthetical  education  into  the  public 
schools  of  this  section  of  the  c.ty. 

The  children  of  the  school  exhibit  a  commendable  pride  in  taking  care  of  the 
grounds,  and  in  protecting  the  shrubbery,  flowers,  and  other  embellishments  from 
the  depredations  of  the  "  outside  barbarians."  The  influence,  direct  and  indirect, 
of  these  decorations,  and  of  the  daily  care  and  interest  in  their  preservation  by 
the  pupils,  was  soon  manifest  in  their  improved  manners  and  tastes,  and  in  the 
improved  habits  of  the  whole  neighborhood.  And  why  can  not  every  city  school- 
hou^e,  even  when  located  in  the  most  crowded  neighborhood,  have  its  plat  of 
flowers,  and  its  attractions  of  v ,-rdure  and  foliage,  if  it  must  be  on  a  small  scale, 
and  if  no  other  place  can  be  afforded,  on  the  walls  of  the  inclosures  1  Why  may 
not  a  vase  of  flowers  always  adorn  the  table  of  the  teacher,  and  bust  of  orator,  poet, 
patriot,  and  philanthropist,  fill,  each  its  appropriate  nich  around  the  school-room  1 
As  has  been  justly  remarked  by  Mrs.  Sigourney,  in  a  valuable  "  Essay  on  the 
Cultivation  of  the  Beautiful  in  Common  Schools" — the  expense  of  such  decora- 
tions will  not  be  thrown  away,  the  beautiful  objects  will  not  be  defaced,  and  the 
fair  scenery  will  not  be  desecrated.  It  will  be  easier  to  enforce  habits  of  neatness 
and  order  among  objects  whose  taste  and  value  make  them  worthy  of  care,  than 
amid  that  parsimony  of  apparatus  and  adornment,  whose  pitiful  meanness  operates 
as  a  temptation  to  waste  and  destroy. 

The  building  is  100  feet  by  50,  and  three  stories  high.  Each  stoiy  is  divided 
into  one  large  school-ro  >m,  with  four  class  rooms  in  connect'on.  The  first  story  is 
occupied  by  a  Primary  School ;  the  second,  by  the  girls  department  of  the  Gram- 
iruw  School,  and  the  third,  by  the  boys'  department. 


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Fig.  2.— SECOND  FLOOR. 


250 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


PLAN  AND  DESCRIPTION  OF  NORTH-EAST  GRAMMAR  SCHOOL-HOUSE, 
PHILADELPHIA. 


Fig   1. — PERSPECTIVE. 

The  Grammar  School-house  on  New  street,  between  Second  and  First-streets, 
in  Philadelphia,  was  erected  after  plans  and  specifications  made  by  Samuel  Sloan, 
Architect,  in  1852.  It  is  81  feet  6  inches  front,  by  65  feet  6  inches  deep,  and 
three  stories  high,  each  story  being  fifteen  feet  in  the  clear.  The  basement,  win- 
dows, and  door  trimmings  are  of  the  best  blue  marble,  finely  cut  and  polished,  and 
the  walls  are  of  the  best  pressed  brick.  All  the  outside  walls  are  laid  with  a  hol- 
low space  of  four  inches — the  inner  and  the  outside  walls  being  tied  together  with 
alternate  bricks  in  the  heading  courses. 

The  building  is  warmed  by  three  of  Chilson's  furnaces,  of  the  largest  size,  and 
ventilated  by  a  shaft,  extending  from  the  cellar  to  the  top  of  the  roof,  with  lateral 
flues  and  openings  from  each  story,  with  a  stove  at  the  base  in  the  cellar,  to  warm 
the  shaft,  to  quicken  the  discharge  of  the  foul  air,  both  in  winter  and  summer. 

The  peculiarity  of  this,  and  the  more  recently  constructed  school-houses  in 
Philadelphia,  is  in  the  plan  of  the  school-rooms.  Instead  of  one  large  room,  with 
two  or  more  class  rooms  in  connection  on  each  floor,  each  story  is  divided  into 
four  apartments,  of  suitable  size  to  accommodate  the  number  of  pupils  assigned  to 
one  teacher,  with  movable  glass  partitions.  By  this  arrangement,  the  Principal 
can  have  a  full  view  of  all  the  pupils  and  assistants  on  the  same  floor,  while 
each  division  is  protected  from  annoyance  or  interruption  from  the  exercises  of 
the  other.  By  removing  the  glazed  partitions, — one  half  of  which  is  admitted  into 
the  wainscotting  below,  and  the  other,  into  the  wainscotting  above,  and  are  so 
hung  as  to  balance  each  other, — the  several  apartments  are  thrown  into  one,  and 
the  whole  school  is  then  within  the  hearing  and  voice  of  the  principal 


SCHOOL  HOUSES  IN  PHILADELPHIA. 


251 


The  following  cut,  Fig.  2,  represents  the  first  floor  of  the  North-east  Grammar 
School,  and  gives  a  good  idea  of  the  i.ew  plan  of  arranging  the  school-rooms. 


Fig.  2. — FIRST  FLOOR  OF  NORTH-EAST  GRAMMAR  SCHOOL. 

n,  a,  a,  a — Entrance  lobby  to  the  rooms  on  the  ground  plan. 
B — Entrance  and  stairway  leading  to  the  second  story. 
C — Entrance  and  stairway  leading  to  the  third  story. 

D,  D,  D,  D.  D — Class  rooms  to  accommodate  60  pupils  each. 

E,  E— Vestibules,  which  afford  a  communication  from  one  room  to  the  other, 
having  glazed  doors  on  its  four  sides. 

F— A  shaft,  which  contains  all  the  hot-air  pipes,  .from  which  they  branch  to  the 
various  rooms  on  each  story  and  discharge  through  register  in  the  floor. 

The  vestibules  E,  E.  on'the  second  and  third  stories,  are  also  the  entrances  to 
the  class  rooms  from  the  outer  gallery  or  landing  of  the  stairs. 

H,  H,  H,  H,  H,  II — The  ventilating  flues,  which  are  placed  in  the  angles  of 
the  rooms  opposite  to  that  of  the  hot-air  registers. 

I,  I,  I,  I,  I — The  teachers  desk,  with  a  small  platform  6  feet  broad  by  8  feet  long. 

Fig.  2. — SECOND  FLOOR  OF  THE  WARREN  GRAMMAR  SCHOOL. 


The  Warren  Grammar  School-house  is  situated  on  Robertson-street,  was  built 
in  1852,  on  the  same  general  plan  as  the  North-east  Grammar  School,  the  de- 
scription of  which  is  applicable  to  this. 


252 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 
PLAN  OF  WARREN  GRAMMAR  SCHOOL-HOUSE. 


Fig.  1.— PERSPECTIVE  or  WARREN  GRAMMAR  SCHOOL-HOUSE. 


The  Warren  Grammar  School-house  is  situated  on  Robertson-street,  was  built 
in  1852,  on  the  same  general  plan  as  the  North-east  Grammar  School,  the  de- 
scription of  which  is  applicable  to  this. 


Fig.  2. — PLAN  or  THE  INTERIOR. 


SCHOOL-HOUSES  IN  PHILADELPHIA. 

PLAN  OF  GLENWOOD  SCHOOL-HOUSE,  PHILADELPHIA. 


253 


Fig.  1. — PERSPECTIVE  OF  GLENWOOD  SCHOOL-HOUSE. 


Glenwood  School-house  is  situated  on  Ridge-road,  and  is  intended  for  an  Un- 
classified school.  The  building  is  66  by  46  feet,  besides  the  projection,  and  is 
two  stories  high.  Each  story  is  divided  into  two  apartments,  separated  by  a 
glazed  partition. 


Fig.  2.— PLAN  OF  FIRST  FLOOR. 


254  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

PLANS  AND  DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  CENTRAL  HIGH  SCHOOL, 
PHILADELPHIA. 


Fig.  1. — PERSPECTIVE. 

In  1853,  a  new  building  was  erected  for  the  accommodation  of  the  Central  High 
School,  in  Spring  Garden,  on  the  east  side  of  Broad  street.  The  lot  is  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  feet  on  Broad  street,  by  ninety-five  feet  deep,  having  Green  street 
for  a  boundary  on  the  north,  and  Brandy  wine  street  on  the  south. 

The  building  is  constructed  throughout  in  a  substantial  manner,  with  good  ma- 
terials, and  with  a  main  reference  to  utility  rather  than  ornament,  although  the 
latter  has  not  been  altogether  lost  sight  of.  The  walls  throughout  are  built  hollow,  to 
prevent  dampness  ;  the  outside  walls  and  those  on  each  side  of  the  transverse  hall 
have  an  average  thickness  of  eighteen  inches,  while  those  separating  the  various 
class  rooms  have  a  thickness  of  thirteen  inches.  The  exterior  is  built  of  the  best 
quality  of  pressed  brick.  The  plainness  of  the  extended  facade  is  relieved  by 
projections  and  recesses  in  the  line  of  the  outer  wall,  by  a  horizontal  line  of  mar- 
ble work  separating  the  first  story  from  those  above,  by  a  large  main  entrance  in 
the  middle,  by  the  cornice,  and  by  the  dome  of  the  observatory  above.  Though 
simple  in  design,  and  constructed  in  an  economical  manner,  the  building  presents 
externally  quite  an  ornamented  appearance. 

The  observatory  is  built  upon  two  piers  of  solid  masonry.  These  piers  stand 
isolated  from  all  the  rest  of  the  structure,  being  inclosed  within  the  walls  on  each 
side  of  the  front  entrance.  They  are  sixteen  feet  wide  by  two  and  a  half  feet  thick, 
and  extend  upwards,  without  material  change,  from  below  the  foundation  to  the 
top  of  the  third  story.  There  they  are  connected  by  iron  girders,  and  on  these 
girders  the  instruments  rest.  The  dome  of  the  observatory  rests  upon  the  other 
walls  of  the  building,  and  has  no  connection  with  the  piers  that  are  used  to  sup- 
port the  instruments.  The  height  of  the  dome  above  the  level  of  the  pavement,  is 
one  hundred  and  twelve  feet. 

Throughout  the  building,  careful  provision  has  been  made  for  light.     The  win- 


CENTRAL  HIGH  SCHOOL,  PHILADELPHIA. 


255 


dows  are  all  large,  and  are  as  closely  placed  as  a  due  regard  to  the  strength  of  the 
walls  wuuld  permit.  Four  out  of  six  of  the  class  rooms  on  each  floor,  are  cor- 
ner rooms,  admitting  light  from  two  sides.  The  large  lecture  room  on  the  first 
floor,  is  lighted  on  three  sides. 

There  are  two  main  stairways,  one  at  each  end  of  the  large  hall.  That  in 
front  runs  in  a  well,  from  the  first  floor  to  the  arch  of  the  observatory.  That 
in  the  rear  connects  only  the  first  and  second  stories.  The  building  has  also 
a  double  flight  of  stu;rs  in  the  rear,  connecting  the  main  hall  with  the  basement, 
a  double  flight  of  outside  stairs  into  the  basement  from  each  end  of  the  building, 
aud  a  small  stairway  connecting  the  chemical  laboratory  with  the  class  room  above. 
The  main  stairways  are  all  six  feet  wide,  each  stair  having  a  rise  of  seven,  and  a 
tread  of  twelve  inches.  The  door  into  the  main  entrance  in  front,  is  a  folding- 
door,  opening  outwards,  eight  feet  wide  and  eighteen  feet  high.  That  in  the  rear 
folding,  opening  outwards,  eight  feet  wide  and  fourteen  feet  high.  The 
main  entrance  into  the  lecture  room. is  likewise  a  double  door,  seven  feet  wide, 
opening  freely  both  ways.  The  class  rooms  are  all  severally  connected  by  doors, 
with  each  other,  as  wel'l  as  with  the  main  hall.  These  doors  are  all  three  ?nd  a 
half  feet  wide.  The  building  thus  has  admirable  facilities  for  the  movements  of 
the  classes,  as  well  as  for  being  instantly  cleared  in  case  of  panic. 

The  general  plan  of  the  building  is  exceeding  simple.  It  is  in  shape  an  ob- 
long parallelogram,  fronting  lengthwise  on  Broad  street,  being  one  hundred  feet 
long  by  seventy-two  deep.  There  are  three  stories  besides  the  basement.  The 
plan  in  each  story  is  nearly  the  same.  A  hall,  sixteen  feet  wide,  runs  east  and 
west,  dividing  the  building  on  each  floor  into  two  equal  parts  •,  these  parts  are 
again  severally  subdivided  by  walls  running  north  and  south,  into  three  rooms, 
_'ng  thirty-eight  feet  by"  twenty -two.  This  gives  six  rooms  on  a  floor,  except 
on  the  first  floor,  where  the  whole  of  the  north  side  is  reserved  for  a  lecture-room. 
There  is  also  an  additional  small  room  in  the  third  story,  occupying  the  space  in  the 
hall  over  the  rear  stairway.  The  lecture  room  on  the  first  floor  is  sixty-eight  feet 
long  by  thirty-eight  feet  wide,  and  twenty  feet  high,  and  is  capable  of  seating  eight 
hundred  persons. 

The  height  of  the  several  stories,  in  the  clear  both  of  the  floor  and  the  ceiling, 
is  as  follows  :  the  basement  story  ten  feet ;  the  first  story  twenty  feet  three  inches  ; 
the  second  story  sixteen  feet  six  inches  :  the  third  story  sixteen  feet.  The  base- 
inent  in  front  is  five  feet  three  inches  above  the  level  of  the  curbstone  ;  and,  as 
the  lot  descends  considerably  in  the  rear,  the  basement  is,  on  an  average,  more 
than  one-half  above  ground.  It  is  divided  into  six  rooms,  with  a  transverse  hall, 
on  the  same  plan  as  the  stories  above,  the  rooms  being  intended  for  a  chemical 
laboratory,  clothes  room,  wash  room,  storage,  &c. 


Fig.  2. — BASEMENT. 


256 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


In  regard  to  the  important  matter  of  heating  and  ventilation,  two  methods  en- 
gaged the  attention  of  the  controllers.  The  first  was,  to  generate  all  the  heat  in 
one  large  chamber  in  the  center,  and  send  it  thence,  north  and  south,  to  the  ends 
of  the  building.  The  objection  to  this  plan  was  the  difficulty  of  producing,  in  con- 
nection with  it,  a  proper  ventilation.  To  secure  good  ventilation  in  an  apartment, 
it  is  necessary  to  establish  a  current  through  it.  The  air  must  be  brought  in  at 
one  end  and  carried  out  at  the  other  end.  The  ventiducts  for  carrying  off  the  air, 
after  it  has  been  used,  must  be,  as  nearly  as  possible,  opposite  to  the  warm  flues 
by  which  the  pure  air  is  introduced  ;  consequently,  if  the  hot  air  chamber  were 
placed  in  the  centre  of  the  building,  the  ventiducts  would  have  to  be  in  the  ex- 
treme ends.  But  the  end  walls,  in  a  building  standing  apart  from  others,  and  eu- 


Fig.  3.— FIRST  FLOOR. 


Fig.  4. — SECOND  AND  THIRD  FLOOR. 


CENTRAL  HIGH  SCHOOL,  PHILADELPHIA.  25 7 

tirely  exposed  to  the  external  atmosphere,  are  naturally  colder  than  those  in  the 
center ;  they  would  consequently  chill  the  ventiducts,  and  thereby  greatly  impair 
their  efficiency  in  carrying  off  the  foul  air. 

Besides  this,  in  order  that  the  ventiducts  may  be  perfectly  reliable  in  all 
weathers,  it  is  necessary  that  some  artificial  means  should  be  used  for  increasing 
the  current  by  rarefying  the  air  within  them.  This  is  ordinarily  done  by  introduc- 
ing, within  the  ventiduct,  a  jet  of  burning  gas,  or  a  small  stove.  The  trouble  and 
expense  of  such  an  apparatus  is  greatly  increased  by  multiplying  the  number  of 
places  where  it  must  be  applied.  It  was,  therefore,  veiy  desirable,  that  the  venti- 
ducts should  be  all  brought  together  into  one  general  tube  before  going  out  of  the 
roof.  One  good  fire  maintained  within  it  would  then  suffice  for  the  whole  build- 
ing. But  this  arrangement  would  be  impracticable  if  the  warm-air  flues  were  to 
radiate  from  the  center,  and  the  ventiducts  be  placed  at  the  extremities. 

It  was,  therefore,  determined  to  take  the  other  method,  namely,  to  centralize  the 
ventilating  apparatus,  and  generate  the  heat  at  the  extremities.  This  is  done  by 
four  of  the  largest  size  furnaces,  two  being  placed  at  each  end  of  the  building,  and 
the  heat  sent  inwards  towards  the  center.  This  is  indicated  by  the  position  of  the 
hot  air  flues,  which  are  all  placed  in  the  north  and  south  walls  of  the  several  apart- 
ments. The  ventiducts  being  at  the  opposite  ends  of  these  apartments,  all  occur 
in  the  walls  that  line  the  central  hall,  and  are  all  brought  together  into  one  large 
tube  or  duct  in  the  loft.  This  tube,  which  is  about  seven  feet  in  diameter,  is  equal 
in  capacity  to  that  of  all  the  separate  ducts  combined.  It  passes  out  ten  feet 
beyond  the  roof,  and  is  surmounted  by  one  of  Emerson's  ventilating  caps,  with  a 
disc  of  about  ten  feet  diameter.  Into  this  large  tube  or  chamber,  just  below  the 
roof,  a  coal  stove  is  introduced,  by  which  a  large  amount  of  hot  air  may  be  gener- 
ated, and  an  impetus  may  be  given  to  the  ascending  current  to  any  extent  that  is 
desired. 

This  part  of  the  arrangement  is  deemed  especially  important.  In  clear,  cold 
weather,  when  the  furnaces  are  in  action,  and  a  current  of  warm  air  is  constantly 
setting  into  one  extremity  of  an  apartment,  it  is  not  difficult  to  establish  and  main- 
tain an  ascending  exit  current  from  the  other  end.  The  air  is  forced  into  the 
ventiduct  by  the  constant  pressure  from  the  other  end.  Moreover,  it  enters  the 
ventiduct  already  warmer  than  the  external  air.  The  ventiduct  itself  becomes 
warmed  ;  and  so  the  current,  once  established,  perpetuates  itself.  But  when  the 
furnaces  are  not  in  operation,  nothing  of  this  sort  takes  place.  And  yet,  this  occurs 
precisely  in  those  parts  of  the  year,  when  ventilation  in  a  school-room  is  most 
needed,  viz. :  in  moderate  weather,  when  it  is  not  warm  enough  to  open  the  doors 
and  windows,  and  yet  not  cold  enough  to  maintain  a  fire.  At  such  times,  the  stove 
in  the  loft,  acting  directly  and  powerfully  upon  the  ventiduct,  will  at  all  times  create 
an  ascending  current,  sucking  (he  foul  air  up,  as  it  were,  from  the  several  apart- 
ments, and  thereby  causing  fresh  air  to  enter  from  the  other  extremities.  The 
position  of  the  windows,  directly  opposite  the  ventiducts,  gives  a  special  facility  for 
this  purpose,  when  the  furnaces  are  not  in  action.  The  windows,  at  such  times, 
take  the  place  of  the  warm  air  flues  in  supplying  a  stream  of  fresh  air. 

The  following  additional  particulars  may  be  mentioned  in  regard  to  the  apparatus 
for  heating  and  ventilation.  The  flues  are  all  made  large,  both  those  for  the  ad- 
mission, and  those  for  the  exit  of  the  air.  The  dimensions  of  the  several  ducts  are 
given  in  the  engravings.  In  the  large  lecture  room,  the  two  warm  air  flues  have 
together  a  capacity  of  about  six  square  feet ;  and  the  two  ventiducts  for  the  same 
have,  together,  a  capacity  of  twelve  square  feet.  In  the  class-rooms,  which  are 
thirty-eight  feet  by  twenty-two,  the  warm  air  flues  average  one  and  one-sixth 
square  feet,  and  the  ventiducts  two  and  one-third  square  feet.  In  all  the  rooms, 
the  warm  air  is  introduced  at  the  bottom  of  the  apartment,  as  near  as  possible  to 
the  level  of  the  floor  ;  and  the  ordinary  opening  for  the  escape  of  the  foul  air  is 
also  on  the  level  with  the  floor,  at  the  opposite  extremity,  so  as  to  sweep  constantly 
the  lower  stratum  of  air,  in  which  the  pupil  is  immersed.  The  ventiducts  are  also 
supplied  with  openings  at  the  ceiling,  to  be  used,  not  in  ordinary,  but  whenever 
Deeded,  to  get  rid  of  excessive  heat.  In  reckoning  the  advantages  of  the  buidir^, 
in  respect  to  pure  air,  especial  emphasis  should  be  given  to  the  commendible  height 
of  the  ceilings.  Each  apartment  has  a  large  volume  of  air  at  its  disposal,  in  pro- 
portion to  the  area  of  its  floor ;  and  it  is  obvious,  that  the  air  of  a  room  eight  or  ten 
feet  high,  is  much  more  rapidly  vitiated  than  that  of  one  fifteen  or  twenty  feet  high. 


258  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

Commencing  from  small  beginnings,  in  1838,  with  only  sixty- three  students  and 
four  professors,  and  with  a  character  not  much  beyond  that  now  attained  by  our 
best  Grammar  Schools,  the  High  School  has  gradually  enlarged  its  corps  of  pro- 
fessors, its  number  of  students,  and  its  course  of  studies,  until  it  has  assumed,  in 
public  estimation,  the  rank,  as  from  the  Legislature  of  the  Commonwealth,  it  has 
received  the  distinctive  attributes  of  a  college.  The  minimum  age  for  admission 
was  originally  twelve,  and  few  students  were  then  admitted  much  beyond  that  age. 
The  minimum  age  for  admission  is  now  thirteen,  while  the  actual  age  of  those  ad- 
mitted, averages  nearly  fifteen.  The  preparat<  >ry  studies  at  the  same  time  have 
been  nearly  doubled,  raising  thereby,  in  a  corres  ponding  degrse,  the  character  and 
studies  of  the  Grammar  Schools,  and  of  the  whole  connected  series  of  schools 
below  them. 

The  number  of  students  in  attendance  on  the  High  School,  during  the  last  six 
years,  has  been  constantly  a  little  over  500,  and  it  is  at  this  time  516.  During  the 
fifteen  years  that  the  High  School  has  existed,  2,805  students  have  been  admitted 
to  its  privileges,  of  whom  2,289  have  entered  upon  the  active  duties  of  life,  and  are 
to  be  found  in  almost  every  walk  of  professional,  commercial,  and  mechanical  busi- 
ness. These  young  men,  it  is  true,  did  not  all  complete  the  full  course  of  study. 
Some  of  them  were  not  more  than  a  year,  a  few  not  more  than  six  months,  in  the 
school.  Yet,  of  the  great  majority  of  them,  it  is  evident  that  they  were  long 
enough  in  the  institution  to  have  received  from  it  an  abiding  moral  and  intellectual 
influence.  The  average  time  of  their  continuance  in  the  school,  was  over  two 
years,  while  many  of  them  completed  the  full  course  of  four  years.  The  institu- 
tion, therefore,  young  as  it  is,  may  justly  claim  to  have  conducted  through  a  liberal 
course  of  study,  more  young  men,  even  in  this  infancy  of  its  career,  than  some  of 
our  most  honored  colleges,  which  have  already  celebrated  their  hundredth  anni- 
versary. The  graduates  of  the  High  School  are  admitted,  without  further  prepa- 
ration, to  the  study  of  law,  medicine  and  divinity.  As  teachers,  they  are  rapidly 
placing  themselves  in  the  front  ranks  of  the  profession.  Our  otvn  public  schools 
have  felt  the  benefit  of  their  influence,  and  applications  are  constantly  received  for 
their  services,  in  organizing  and  conducting  important  educational  establishments 
in  other  states.  The  alumni  of  the  High  School  have  furnished  the  most  success- 
ful reporters  for  the  United  States  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives.  Large 
numbers  of  them  are  engaged  in  civil  engineering,  and  not  a  few  of  them  are  con- 
nected with  that  important  scientific  undertaking,  the  United  States  Coast  Survey. 
They  are  engineers  in  the  Japan  Expedition,  surgeons  in  the  navy  of  the  United 
States,  miners  and  merchants  in  California,  and  engaged,  it  is  believed,  in  some 
capacity,  in  every  State  in  the  Union. 

All  these  young  men  are  bound  together  by  a  tie  of  affection  for  the  public 
schools,  and  particularly  for  the  High  School,  the  strength  of  which  is  even  more 
than  proportionate  to  the  benefit  they  have  received.  I  have  been  often  surprised 
at  the  liveliness  and  fervor  of  the  interest  which  they  have  shown  towards  their 
Alma  Mater.  A  large  part  of  them,  all  who  were  in  the  school  as  long  as  two 
years,  are  united  in  a  general  society,  known  as  the  "  Alumni  Association,"  num- 
bering now  760.  Besides  this,  there  are  numerous  smaller  associations,  meeting 
weekly  as  literary  or  debating  societies,  for  the  purposes  of  following  up  the  intel- 
lectual culture  which  they  commenced  at  school.  These  associations  differ  from 
the  ordinary  literary  societies  in  colleges,  inasmuch  as  they  do  not  consist  of  the 
undergraduates,  but  are  made  up  entirely  of  those  who  have  left  school.  They 
discuss  literary  and  scientific  subjects,  prepare  essays  and  lectures,  appoint  commit- 
tees to  report  on  questions  of  science  or  art,  submitted  by  the  members,  and  re- 
ceive communications  on  these  subjects  from  such  of  their  members  as  have  re- 
moved to  other  parts  of  the  country. 

When  it  is  recollected  that  the  vast  majority  of  this  number  settle  in  our  midst, 
that  they  are  to  be  found  in  every  walk  of  honorable  enterprise,  professional,  mer- 
cantile and  mechanical,  and  that  from  the  character  of  the  education  which  they 
have  received,  they  will  naturally  acquire  positions  of  greater  influence  than  others 
Afllko  have  had  less  favorable  advantages,  it  is  difficult  to  overestimate  their  growing 
importance  as  a  body.  There  are  certainly  not  less  than  eighteen  hundred  of  these 
young  men  now  engaged  in  active  life  in  the  city  cf  Philadelphia,  at  ages  varying 
from  fifteen  to  thirty.  Such  is  the  character  which  they  have  acquired  among  the 
citizens  for  successful  attention  to  whatever  they  undertake,  that  not  a  week  passes 


CENTRAL  HIGH  SCHOOL,  PHILADELPHIA.  259 

without  applications  being  received  at  the  school  for  some  of  its  alumni.  Eligible 
situations  in  the  very  best  stores  and  counting  houses  in  the  city  are  offered  to  them 
without  solicitation.  They  are  constantly  advertised  for,  hoc  nomine,  in  the  pub- 
lic papers.  These  facts  would  seem  to  indicate  that  the  course  of  instruction  and 
discipline  provided  by  the  controllers  has  been  such  as  to  fit  the  students  of  the 
High  School  for  the  actual  wants  of  life.  It  is  gratifying  to  observe,  also,  that  the 
habits  and  the  moral  training,  even  more  than  the  intellectual  instruction,  are 
constantly  mentioned  as  among  the  qualities  that  have  brought  our  alumiii  into 
request. 

OCCUPATIONS  of  the  2,107  pupils  who  graduated  or  left  during  thv  eleven  years  ending 
July  22d,  1853.— Architects  5,  Bakers  5,  Blacksmiths  48,  Blind  Makers  2,  Bookbinders 
19,  Brewer  1,  Bricklayers  47.  Brickmakers  5,  Brushmaker  1.  Cabinetmakers  14,  Ca- 
dets 3,  Carpenters  166,  Carvers  and  Gilders  2,  Chairmakers  3,  Chemists  12,  Clergy- 
men 9,  Clerks  199,  Coachmaker  1,  Coachtrimmers  2,  Conveyancers  76,  Coopers  10, 
Copper-plate  printers  2,  Copper-smiths  2,  Cordwainers  62,  Curriers,  14,  Cutlers  2.  Den- 
tists 10,  Druggists  69,  Dyers  2.  Engineers  51,  Engravers  55.  Farmers  95.  Gas  fitters  7, 
Gilders  4,  Glasscutters3,  Goldbeater  1,  Grocers  27.  Hatters  13.  Ironfounders  2,  Iron 
railing  maker  1.  Jewellers  21.  Lawyers  29,  Locksmiths  3.  Machinists  91,  Manufactur- 
ers 13,  Mariners  48,  Masons  4,  Miller  1,  Millwrights  3,  Morocco  dresser  1,  Moulders 2. 
Painters  13,  Paper  hanger  1,  Patternmakers  2,  "Physicians  34,  Plasterers  2,  Plough- 
maker  1,  Plumbers  3,  Potter  1,  Printers  76.  Saddlers  19,  Sailmakers2,  Ship  Carpen- 
ters 9,  Shipjoiners  2,  Shipwrights  40,  Silversmiths  2,  Stereotypists  2,  Stone  cutters  9, 
Storekeepers  439,  Surveyors  3.  Tailors  15,  Tanner  1,  Teachers  72,  Tinsmiths  8,  To- 
bacconists 5,  Turners  6,  Type  founders  4.  Umbrellamakers  4,  Upholsterer  1.  Watch- 
makers 6,  Weavers  5,  Wheelwrights  8.  Not  ascertained  29.  Deceased  while  pupils 
10.— Total,  2,107. 

OCCUPATIONS  of  the  Parents  or  Guardiansof  the  pupils  admitted,  from  the  opening,  Oc- 
tober 22d,  }838,toJuly\6th,  1853.— Agents  6,  Aldermen 2,  Artists  3,  Auctioneers  2.  Ba- 
kers 21,  Barbers  2,  Blacksmiths  37,  Blindmakers  2,  Boarding-house  keepers  13,  Boiler- 
maker 1,  Bonnet  pressersS,  Bookbinders  12,  Booksellers  5,  Bottlers  3,  Brassfounders  6, 
Brewers  11,  Bricklayers  29,  Brickmakers  14,  Bridlebit  makers  2,  Brokers  28,  Brush- 
makers  12,  Button-maker  1,  Butcher  1.  Cabinetmakers  35,  Cap-maker  1,  Carder  1, 
Car-builder  1,  Carpenters  245,  Carrier  1,  Carters  24,  Carvers  and  Gilders  3,  Caulker  1, 
Chairmakers  6,  Chaise-driver  1,  Chemists  4,  Clergymen  41,  Clerks  and  Accountants 
159,  Coachmakers  6,  Coachtrimmer  1,  Coal  dealers"8,  Coal  viewer  1.  Coffee  roaster  1, 
Coiners  2,  Collectors  6,  Combmakers  13,  Comedians  2,  Commission  Merchants  11, 
Conductors  3,  Confectioners  10,  Contractor  1,  Conveyancers  9,  Coopers  16,  Copper- 
plate printer  1,  Copper-smiths  1,  Corders  3,  Cordwainers  128,  County  Commissioner  1, 
Curriers  18,  Custom-house  officers  3,  Cutlers  2.  Daguerreolypists  2,  Dealers  22,  Den- 
tists 14,  Distillers  10,  Draymen  4,  Drovers  3,  Druggists  29,  Dry  goods  Merchants  12, 
Dyers  10,  Dye-sinkers  1.  Editors 2,  Engineers  11,  Engravers21.  Farmers  42,  Fisher- 
men 7,  Flour  Inspector  1,  Frame  maker  1,  Furriers  3.  Gardeners  4,  Gentlemen  4,  Gen- 
tlewomen, (widows)  134.  Gilders  4,  Glass-blowers  5,  Glove-maker  1,  Goldbeaters  2, 
Grocers  100,  Guager  1,  Gunsmith  1.  Hardware  Merchants  12,  Hair-dresser  1,  Hatters 
34,  Hay  Merchants  2,  Horse  dealers  2,  Hose-makers  2,  Hucksters  2.  Ice-dealers  3,  Im- 
porters 3,  Inn-keepers  54,  Iron-founders  8.  Jewellers  16,  Judges  6.  Laborers  59,  Lamp- 
maker  1,  Lapidary  1,  Lastmakers  3,  Lawyers  35,  Lirne  burner  1,  Livery  Stable  keep- 
ers 3,  Locksmiths  4,  Lumber  Merchants  9.  Machinists  47,  Mantuamakers  35,  Manufac- 
turers 73.  Marble  Mason  1,  Mariners  36,  Mast-Makers  2,  Mathematical  Instrument 
makers  6,  Measurer  and  Surveyor  1,  Merchants  145,  Military  Cap  maker  1,  Millers  12, 
Milliners  10.  Millwrights  3,  Miners  2,  Morocco-dressers  4,  Musical  Instrument  maker 

1,  Moulder  1.    Organ  builder  1,  Oystermen  2.     Painters  13,  Paper  Box  makers  4,  Paper- 
hangers  2,  Paper  manufacturer  1,' Pattern-makers  3,  Paviors  2,  Pawnbrokers  4,  Pedlars 

2.  Physicians  62,    Piano  forte  makers  3,  Plane  makers  2,  Plasterers  20,   Plumbers  6, 
Porters  2,  Portrait  Painters  2,  Potters  2,  Printers  42,  Prison-keeper  1,  Publisher   1, 
Pumpmakers  4.     Reedmaker  1,  Refiner  1,  Reporter  1,  Rigger  1.     Saddlers  31,  Sailma- 
kers  4,  Sailing  Masters  2,  Salesmen  4,  Sashmaker  1,  Saw-makers  2,  Sawyers  2,  Scale 
maker  1,  Seamstresses  28,  Shipchandler  1,  Shipjoiners  5,  Shipsmiths  3,   Shipwrights 
29,  Shuttle-maker  1,  Silver-platers  3,  Silver-smiths  4,  Skin  dresser  1,   Slater  1,  Soap 
boilers  2,  Spar  makers  2,  Spectacle  makers  2,  Spinner  1,  Spooler  1,  Spring  makers  2, 
Stage  drivers  3,  Starch  manufacturer  1,  Stereotype-founders  2,  Stockmakers  2,   Stone 
cutters    17,  Stone  Masons  5,  Storekeepers  139,  Stove  finisher  1,  Stove  maker  1,    Su- 
perintendent of  Gas  Works  1,  Surgical  Instrument  makers  10,  Surveyors  2,  Suspender 
maker  1.    Tailoresses  7,  Tailors  86,  Tallow  Chandlers  4,  Tanners  5,  Teachers  49,  Tin- 
smiths 16,  Tobacconists   16,  Traders  4.  Tube  maker  1,  Turners  9,  Type-founders  4. 
Umbrella  makers  8,  Undertakers  2,  Upholsters  4.    Varnisher  1,  Victuallers  22.    Warpers 
2,  Watchmakers  12,   Watchmen  13,  Weavers  39,  Weigh  Master  1,  Wheelwrights   14, 
Whipmaker  1,  Worker  in  Metal  1.— Total,  2,805. 


260 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


HUGHES'  CITY  HIGH  SCHOOL  CINCINNATI. 


Fig.  1.— PERSPECTIVE. 


PUBLIC  SCHOOLS  OF  CINCINNATI.  261 

PLANS  OF  HUGHES'  CITY  HIGH  SCHOOL  OF  CINCINNATI. 

The  Hughes  City  High  School  is  one  of  two  Public  High  Schools, 
sustained  partly  out  of  two  trust  estates,  known  as  the  "  Woodward" 
and  "Hughes"  Funds,  by  the  City  of  Cincinnati,  as  part  of  its  system 
of  public  instruction.  This  system  has  grown  up  to  its  present  extent 
and  usefulness  since  1828-9.  when  Col.  Andrew  Mack  carried  through 
the  Legislature  of  Ohio,  a  bill  for  a  special  act,  imposing  a  tax  of  $7,000 
upon  the  city,  for  the  erection  of  suitable  buildings  in  the  several  wards, 
and  an  annual  tax  of  $7,000  in  each  subsequent  year,  which,  together 
with  the  State  appropriation,  was  to  be  applied  to  the  support  of  com- 
mon schools.  Under  this  act,  the  system  was  commenced,  and  in  1834, 
it  was  better  grounded  and  greatly  extended  by  an  act  authorizing  the 
City  Council  to  build  substantial  school-houses,  and  to  provide  for  the 
support  of  common  schools  therein  at  the  expense  of  the  city.  Accord- 
ingly, the  city  was  divided  into  districts,  and  in  the  course  of  four  years 
nine  buildings  were  erected,  at  an  expense  of  $96,000 — which,  in  loca- 
tion, size,  and  arrangement^  were  greatly  in  advance  of  the  then  gen- 
erally received  notices  of  school  architecture.  From  year  to  year  the 
number  of  houses  has  been  increased,  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  grow- 
ing population,  and  the  style  and  fixtures  greatly  improved.  The  care 
of  the  schools  is  committed  to  a  Board  of  Trustees  and  Visitors,  one 
for  each  ward,  elected  by  the  legal  voters  thereof. 

In  1845,  the  board  were  authorized  to  establish  schools  of  different 
grades,  and  in  1847,  a  Central  High  School  was  organized  under  the 
charge  of  Prof.  H.  H.  Barney,  who  has  just  (1853.)  been  elected  State 
Superintendent  of  Common  Schools. 

In  1850.  the  Legislature  authorized  the  appointment  of  a  Superinten- 
dent of  Common  Schools,  "whose  duty  it  should  be  to  visit  and  super- 
intend all  the  common  schools  of  the  city,  and,  under  the  direction  of  the 
board  of  trustees  and  visitors  of  common  schools,  to  establish  such  course 
of  studies,  rules,  and  regulations  as  may  be  deemed  best  calculated  to 
promote  the  progress  and  well  being  of  said  schools." 

In  1852,  the  Woodward  and  Hughes  Funds,  amounting  to  $300.000, 
and  yielding  an  annual  income  of  over  $6.000,  were  united  for  the  pur- 
pose'of  sustaining  two  High  Schools,  in  different  sections  of  the  city — 
with  the  same  requisites  for  admission  and  course  of  study,  and  open  to 
both  sexes. 

For  the  Hughes  City  High  School  a  lot  on  Fifth-street  was  pur- 
chased for  $18,000,  and  a  building,  of  which  the  following  diagrams 
present  the  size,  and  internal  accommodations,  was  completed  in  1853, 
at  an  expense  of  $20.000. 

The  system  of  Public  Instruction  in  Cincinnati,  embraces : 

I.  District  schools— one  for  each  of  the  twelve  districts,  into  which  the 
city  is  divided  for  school  purposes.     Each  school  is  classified  into  four 
sections  or  grades,  and  the  pupils  pass  from  the  lowest  to  the  next  high- 
est on  examination,  which  is  held  tAvice  a  year.     In  1850,  there  were 
6,740  pupils,  under  148  teachers,  of  whom  124  were  females. 

II.  German  English  Schools— three  in  number,  are  intended  for  the 
special  accommodations  of  children  born  of  German  parents — and  who 
are  taught  both  the  German  and  English  language.     In  1850,  there  were 
three  schools,  twenty-four  teachers,  and  twenty-three  hundred  pupils. 

III.  Evening  Schools.     Cincinnati  was  one  of  the  first  cities  to  pro- 
vide this  class  of  schools  for  children  who  could  not  attend  the  day  schools, 
and  for  adults  whose  early  education  had  been  neglected.     In  1850, 
there  were  six  schools,  open  five  evenings  in  the  week  from  October  to 
February,  with  about  six  hundred  pupils. 

IV.  High  Schools— of  which  there  are  now  (1853)  two. 


262 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


Fig.  2.— BASEMENT. 


Fig.  3.— FIRST  FLOOR. 


HUGHES'  CITY  HIGH  SCHOOL. 


263 


Fig.  4.— SECOND  FLOOR. 


Fig.  5.— THIRD  FLOOR. 


PUBLIC  HIGH  SCHOOL.  265 

PUBLIC  HIGH  SCHOOL. 

In  the  preceding  pages  we  have  presented  a  variety  of  plans  for 
the  construction  and  internal  arrangements  of  buildings  designed  and 
erected  for  Public  High  Schools.  Whenever  and  wherever  the 
interest  of  the  community  can  be  sufficiently  awakened  to  call  for  a 
public  school  of  the  grade  generally  understood  by  the  term  High 
School,  there  will  be  no  difficulty  in  raising  the  funds  necessary  to 
erect  and  furnish  a  suitable  edifice  for  the  accommodation  of  the 
school.  It  may  not,  then,  be  amiss  in  this  place  to  present  a  few 
considerations  and  facts  bearing  upon  the  establishment  of  a  school 
of  this  grade  in  every  large  village  and  city  in  our  country. 

By  a  Public  or  Common  High  School,  is  intended  a  public  or 
common  school  for  the  older  and  more  advanced  scholars  of  the 
community  in  which  the  same  is  located,  in  a  course  of  instruction 
adapted  to  their  age,  and  intellectual  and  moral  wants,  and,  to  some 
extent,  to  their  future  pursuits  in  life.  It  is  common  or  public  in  the 
same  sense  in  which  the  district  school,  or  any  lower  grade  of  school 
established  and  supported  under  a  general  law  and  for  the  public 
benefit,  is  common  or  public.  It  is  open  to  all  the  children  of  the 
community  to  which  the  school  belongs,  under  such  regulations  as 
to  age,  attainments,  &c.,  as  the  good  of  the  institution  may  require, 
or  the  community  may  adopt.  A  Public  High  School  is  not  neces- 
sarily a  free  school.  It  may  be  supported  by  a  fund,  a  public  tax, 
or  an  assessment  or  rate  of  tuition  per  scholar,  or  by  a  combination 
of  all,  or  any  two  of  these  modes.  Much  less  is  it  a  public  or  com- 
mon school  in  the  sense  of  being  cheap,  inferior,  ordinary.  To  be 
truly  a  public  school,  a  High  School  must  embrace  in  its  course  of 
instruction  studies  which  can  be  more  profitably  pursued  there  than 
in  public  schools  of  a  lower  grade,  or  which  gather  their  pupils  from 
a  more  circumscribed  territory,  and  as  profitably  as  in  any  private 
school  of  the  same  pretensions.  It  must  make  a  good  education 
common  in  the  highest  and  best  sense  of  the  word  common — common 
because  it  is  good  enough  for  the  best,  and  cheap  enough  for  the 
poorest  family  in  the  community.  It  would  be  a  mockery  of  the  idea 
of  such  a  school,  to  call  it  a  Public  High  School,  if  the  course  of 
instruction  pursued  in  it  is  not  higher  and  better  than  can  be  got  in 
public  schools  of  a  lower  grade,  or  if  it  does  not  meet  the  wants  of 
the  wealthiest  and  best  educated  families,  or,  if  the  course  of  instruc- 
tion is  liberal  and  thorough,  and  at  the  same  time  the  worthy  and 
talented  child  of  a  poor  family  is  shut  out  from  its  privileges  by  a 
high  rate  of  tuition.  The  school,  to  be  common  practically,  must  be 
both  cheap  and  good.  To  be  cheap,  its  support  must  be  provided  for 
wholly  or  mainly  out  of  a  fund,  or  by  public  tax.  And  to  justify  the 
imposition  of  a  public  tax,  the  advantages  of  such  a  scnooi  musi 
accrue  to  the  whole  community.  It  must  be  shown  to  be  a  common 
benefit,  a  common  interest,  which  cannot  be  secured  so  well,  or  at 


206  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

all,  except  through  the  medium  of  taxation.  What,  then,  are  the 
advantages  which  may  reasonably  be  anticipated  from  the  establish- 
ment of  a  Public  High  School,  properly  organized,  instructed,  and 
supervised  ? 

First.  Every  thing  which  is  now  done  in  the  several  district 
schools,  and  schools  of  lower  grade,  can  be  better  done,  and  in  a 
shorter  time,  because  the  teachers  will  be  relieved  from  the  neces- 
sity of  devoting  the  time  and  attention  now  required  by  few  of  the 
older  and  more  advanced  pupils,  and  can  bestow  all  their  time  and 
attention  upon  the  preparatory  studies  and  younger  children.  These 
studies  will  be  taught  in  methods  suited  to  the  age  and  attainments 
of  the  pupils.  A  right  beginning  can  thus  be  made  in  the  lower 
schools,  in  giving  a  thorough  practical  knowledge  of  elementary 
principles,  and  in  the  formation  of  correct  mental  and  moral  habits, 
which  are  indispensable  to  all  sound  education.  All  this  will  be 
done  under  the  additional  stimulus  of  being  early  and  thoroughly 
fitted  for  the  High  School. 

Second.  A  High  School  will  give  completeness  to  the  system  of 
public  instruction  which  may  be  in  operation.  It  will  make  suitable 
provision  for  the  older  and  more  advanced  pupils  of  both  sexes,  and 
will  admit  of  the  methods  of  instruction  and  discipline  which  cannot 
be  profitably  introduced  into  the  schools  below.  The  lower  grade 
of  schools — those  which  are  established  for  young  children, — require 
a  large  use  of  oral  and  simultaneous  methods,  and  a  frequent  change 
of  place  and  position  on  the  part  of  the  pupils.  The  higher  branches, 
especially  all  mathematical  subjects,  require  patient  application  and 
habits  of  abstraction  on  the  part  of  the  older  pupils,  which  can  with 
difficulty,  if  at  all,  be  attained  by  many  pupils  amid  a  multiplicity  of 
distracting  exercises,  movements,  and  sounds.  The  recitations  of 
this  class  of  pupils,  to  be  profitable  and  satisfactory,  must  be  con- 
ducted in  a  manner  which  requires  time,  discussion,  and  explanation, 
and  the  undivided  attention  both  of  pupils  and  teacher.  The  course 
of  instruction  provided  in  the  High  School  will  be  equal  in  extent 
and  value  to  that  which  may  be  given  in  any  private  school,  academy, 
or  female  seminary  in  the  place,  and  which  is  now  virtually  denied 
to  the  great  mass  of  the  children  by  the  burdensome  charge  of 
tuition. 

As  has  been  already  implied,  the  advantages  of  a  High  School 
should  not  be  confined  to  the  male  sex.  The  great  influence  of  the 
female  sex,  as  daughters,  sisters,  wives,  mothers,  companions,  and 
teachers,  in  determining  the  manners,  morals,  and  intelligence  of  the 
whole  community,  leaves  no  room  to  question  the  necessity  of  pro- 
viding for  the  girls  the  best  means  of  intellectual  and  moral  culture. 
The  course  of  instruction  should  embrace  the  first  principles  of 
natural  and  mechanical  philosophy,  by  which  inventive  genius  and 
practical  skill  in  the  useful  arts  can  be  fostered  ;  such  studies  as 
navigation,  book-keeping,  surveying,  botany,  chemistry,  and  kindred 
studies,  which  are  directly  connected  with  success  in  the  varied 
departments  of  domestic  and  inland  trade,  with  foreign  commerce 
with  gardening,  agriculture,  the  manufacturing  and  domestic  arta 


PUBLIC  IHGH  SCHOOL.  267 

such  studies  as  astronomy,  physiology,  the  history  of  our  own  state 
and  nation,  the  principles  of  our  state  and  national  constitutions, 
political  economy,  and  moral  science ;  in  fine,  such  a  course  of  study 
as  is  now  given  in  more  than  fifty  towns  and  cities  in  New  England, 
and  which  shall  prepare  every  young  man,  whose  parents  may  desire 
it,  for  business,  or  for  college,  and  give  to  every  young  woman  a  well 
disciplined  mind,  high  moral  aims,  refined  tastes,  gentle  and  graceful 
manners,  practical  views  of  her  own  duties,  and  those  resources  of 
health,  thought,  conversation,  and  occupation,  which  bless  alike  the 
highest  and  lowest  station  in  life.  When  such  a  course  is  provided 
and  carried  out,  the  true  idea  of  the  High  School  will  be  realized. 

Third  It  will  equalize  the  opportunities  of  a  good  education,  and 
exert  a  happy,  social  influence  throughout  the  whole  community  from 
which  it  gathers  its  scholars.  From  the  want  of  a  public  school  of 
this  character,  the  children  of  such  families  as  rely  exclusively  on 
the  district  school  are  isolated,  and  are  condemned  to  an  inferior 
education,  both  in  quality  and  quantity  ;  they  are  cut  off  from  the 
stimulus  and  sympathy  which  the  mingling  of  children  of  the  same 
age  from  different  parts  of  the  same  community  would  impart.  The 
benefits,  direct  and  indirect,  which  will  result  to  the  country  dis- 
tricts, or  poor  families  who  live  in  the  outskirts  of  the  city,  from  the 
establishment  of  a  school  of  this  class,  cannot  easily  be  overesti- 
mated. The  number  of  young  men  and  young  women  who  will 
receive  a  thorough  education,  qualifying  them  for  business,  and  to  be 
teachers,  will  increase  from  year  to  year  ;  and  the  number  who  will 
press  up  to  the  front  ranks  of  scholarship  in  the  school,  bearing  away 
the  palm  of  excellence  by  the  vigor  of  sound  minds  in  sound  bodies, 
of  minds  and  bodies  made  vigorous  by  long  walks  and  muscular  labor 
in  the  open  air,  will  be  greater  in  proportion  to  their  number  than 
from  the  city  districts.  It  will  do  both  classes  good,  the  children  of 
the  city,  and  the  children  of  the  country  districts,  to  measure  them- 
selves intellectually  in  the  same  fields  of  study,  and  to  subject  the 
peculiarities  of  their  respective  manners,  the  roughness  and  awk- 
wardness sometimes  characteristic  of  the  one,  and  the  artificiality 
and  flippancy  of  the  other,  to  the  harmonizing  influence  of  reciprocal 
action  and  reaction.  The  isolation  and  estrangement  which  now 
divide  and  subdivide  the  community  into  country  and  city  clans, 
which,  if  not  hostile,  are  strangers  to  each  other,  will  give  place  to 
the  frequent  intercourse  and  esteem  of  individual  and  family  friend- 
ship, commenced  in  the  school-room,  and  on  the  play-ground  of  the 
school.  The  school  will  thus  become  a  bond  of  union,  a  channel  of 
sympathy,  a  spring-head  of  healthy  influence,  and  stimulus  to  the 
whole  commnnity. 

Fourth.  The  privileges  of  a  good  school  will  be  brought  within 
the  reach  of  all  classes  of  the  community,  and  will  actually  be  en- 
joyed by  children  of  the  same  age  from  families  of  the  most  diverse 
circumstances  as  to  wealth,  education,  and  occupation.  Side  by  side 
in  the  same  recitations,  heart  and  hand  in  the  same  sports,  pressing 
up  together  to  the  same  high  attainments  in  knowledge  and  charac- 
ter, will  be  found  the  children  of  the  rich  and  poor,  the  more  and  the 


268  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

less  favored  in  outward  circumstances,  without  knowing  or  caring  to 
know  how  far  their  families  are  separated  by  the  arbitrary  distinc- 
tions which  divide  and  distract  society.  With  nearly  equal  oppor- 
tunities of  education  in  childhood  and  youth,  the  prizes  of  life,  its 
best  fields  of  usefulness,  and  sources  of  happiness  will  be  open  to 
all,  whatever  may  have  been  their  accidents  of  birth  and  fortune. 
From  many  obscure  and  humble  homes  in  the  city  and  in  the  country, 
will  be  called  forth  and  trained  inventive  talent,  productive  skill,  in- 
tellectual taste,  and  God-like  benevolence,  which  will  add  to  the 
general  wealth,  multiply  workshops,  increase  the  value  of  farms,  and 
carry  forward  every  moral  and  religious  enterprise  which  aims  to 
bless,  purify,  and  elevate  society. 

Fifth.  The  influence  which  the  annual  or  semi-annual  examina- 
tion of  candidates  for  admission  into  the  High  School,  will  operate 
as  a  powerful  and  abiding  stimulus  to  exertion  throughout  all  the 
lower  schools.  The  privileges  of  the  High  School  will  be  held 
forth  as  the  reward  of  exertion  in  the  lower  grade  of  schools  ;  and 
promotion  to  it,  based  on  the  result  of  an  impartial  examination,  will 
form  an  unobjectional  standard  by  which  the  relative  standing  of  the 
different  schools  can  be  ascertained,  and  will  also  indicate  the  studies 
and  departments  of  education  to  which  the  teachers  in  particular 
schools  should  devote  special  attention.  This  influence  upon  the 
lower  schools,  upon  scholars  and  teachers,  upon  those  who  reach, 
and  those  who  do  not  reach  the  High  School,  will  be  worth  more 
than  all  it  costs,  independent  of  the  advantages  received  by  its  pupils. 

Sixth.  While  the  expenses  of  public  or  common  schools  will 
necessarily  be  increased  by  the  establishment  of  a  school  of  this  class, 
in  addition  to  those  already  supported,  the  aggregate  expenditures 
for  education,  including  public  and  private  schools,  will  be  diminished. 
Private  schools  of  the  same  relative  standing  will  be  discontinued 
for  want  of  patronage,  while  those  of  a  higher  grade,  if  really  called 
for  by  the  educational  wants  of  the  community,  will  be  improved.  A 
healthy  competition  will  necessarily  exist  between  the  public  and 
private  schools  of  the  highest  grade,  and  the  school  or  schools  which 
do  not  come  up  to  the  highest  mark,  must  go  down  in  public  estima- 
tion. Other  things  being  equal,  viz.,  school-houses,  teachers,  clas- 
sification, and  the  means  and  appliances  of  instruction,  the  public 
school  is  always  better  than  the  private.  From  the  uniform  experi- 
ence of  those  places  where  a  High  School  has  been  established,  it 
may  be  safely  stated,  that  there  will  be  an  annual  saving  in  the 
expenses  of  education  to  any  community,  equal  to  one  half  the  amount 
paid  for  tuition  in  private  schools,  and,  with  this  saving  of  expense, 
there  will  be  a  better  state  of  education. 

Seventh.  The  successful  establishment  of  a  High  School,  by  im- 
proving the  whole  system  of  common  schools,  and  interesting  a  larger 
number  of  families  in  the  prosperity  of  the  schools,  will  create  a 
better  public  sentiment  on  the  subject  than  has  heretofore  existed, 
and  the  schools  will  be  regarded  as  the  common  property,  the  com- 
mon glory,  the  common  security  of  the  whole  community.  The 
wealthy  will  feel  that  the  small  additional  tax  required  to  establish 


PUBLIC  HIGH  SCHOOL.  269 

and  sustain  this  school,  if  not  saved  to  them  in  the  diminished  tuition 
for  the  education  of  their  own  children  in  private  schools,  at  home 
and  abroad,  is  returned  to  them  a  hundred  fold  in  the  enterprise 
which  it  will  quicken,  in  the  increased  value  given  to  property,  and 
in  the  number  of  families  which  will  resort  to  the  place  where  it  is 
located,  as  a  desirable  residence,  because  of  the  facilities  enjoyed 
for  a  good  education.  The  poor  will  feel  that,  whatever  may  betide 
them,  their  children  are  born  to  an  inheritance  more  valuable  than 
lands  or  shops,  in  the  free  access  to  institutions  where  as  good  an 
education  can  be  had  as  money  can  buy  at  home  or  abroad.  The 
stranger  will  be  invited  to  visit  not  only  the  institutions  which  public 
or  individual  benevolence  has  provided  for  the  poor,  the  orphan,  the 
deaf  mute,  and  the  criminal,  but  schools  where  the  children  and 
youth  of  the  community  are  trained  to  inventive  and  creative  habits 
of  mind,  to  a  practical  knowledge  of  the  fundamental  principles  of 
business,  to  sound  moral  habits,  refined  tastes,  and  respectful  man- 
ners. And  in  what  balance,  it  has  well  been  asked  in  reference  to 
the  cost  of  good  public  schools,  as  compared  with  these  advantages, 
shall  we  weigh  the  value  of  cultivated,  intelligent,  energetic,  polished, 
and  virtuous  citizens  ?  How  much  would  a  community  be  justified 
in  paying  for  a  physician  who  should  discover  or  practice  some  mode 
of  treatment  through  which  many  lives  should  be  preserved  ?  How 
much  for  a  judge,  who,  in  the  able  administration  of  the  laws,  should 
secure  many  fortunes,  or  rights  more  precious  than  fortunes,  that 
might  else  be  lost  ?  How  much  for  a  minister  of  religion  who  should 
be  the  instrument  of  saving  hundreds  from  vice  and  crime,  and  per- 
suading them  to  the  exertion  of  their  best  powers  for  the  common 
good  ?  How  much  for  the  ingenious  inventor,  who,  proceeding  from 
the  first  principles  of  science  onward,  should  produce  some  improve- 
ment that  should  enlarge  all  the  comforts  of  society,  not  to  say  a 
steam-engine  or  a  magnetic  telegraph  ?  How  much  for  the  patriotic 
statesman,  who,  in  difficult  times,  becomes  the  savior  of  his  country  ? 
How  much  for  the  well-instructed  and  enterprising  merchant  who 
should  suggest  and  commence  the  branches  of  business  that  should 
bring  in  a  vast  accession  of  wealth  and  strength  ?  One  such  person 
as  any  of  these  might  repay  what  a  High  School  would  cost  for 
centuries.  Whether,  in  the  course  of  centuries,  every  High  School 
would  produce  one  such  person,  it  would  be  useless  to  prophesy. 
But  it  is  certain  that  it  would  produce  many  intelligent  citizens, 
intelligent  men  of  business,  intelligent  servants  of  the  state,  intelli- 
gent teachers,  intelligent  wives  and  daughters,  who,  in  their  several 
spheres,  would  repay  to  any  community  much  more  than  they  and 
all  their  associates  had  received.  The  very  taxes  of  a  town,  in 
twenty  years,  will  be  lessened  by  the  existence  of  a  school  which 
will  continually  have  sent  forth  those  who  were  so  educated  as  to 
become  not  burdens  but  benefactors. 

These  results  have  been  realized  wherever  a  Public  High  School 
has  been  opened  under  circumstances  favorable  to  the  success  of  a 
private  school  of  the  same  grade, — wherever  a  good  school-house, 
good  regulations,  (for  admission,  attendance,  studies,  ar?J  books,) 
good  teachers,  and  good  supervision  have  been  provided. 


270  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

The  Principal  of  the  Latin  High  School  of  Boston,  in  a  letter 
written  1846,  says, — 

"  There  is  no  institution  so  truly  republican  as  such  a  school  as  this.  While  we, 
the  present  teachers,  were  undergraduates  of  the  school,  the  rich  sent  their  sons 
to  the  school  because  it  was  the  best  that  could  be  found.  They  ascertained  that 
it  was  not  a  source  of  contamination,  but  that  their  boys  learned  here  to  compare 
themselves  with  others,  and  to  feel  the  necessity  of  something  more  that  mere 
wealth  to  gain  consideration.  At  that  time,  poor  men  sent  their  sons  hither  be- 
cause they  knew  that  they  here  would  get  that  education  which  they  could  afford 
to  give  them  in  no  other  way.  They  gained  too  by  intercourse  with  their  wealthiei 
mates  a  polish  of  exterior  manners,  and  an  intellectual  turn  of  mind  which 
their  friends  could  appreciate  and  perceive,  although  they  could  not  tell  what  it 
was  that  had  been  acquired.  Oftentimes  also  the  poor  boy  would  take  the  lead 
of  his  more  pampered  classmate,  and  take  the  honors  of  the  school. 

In  a  class  lately  belonging  to  the  school  were  two  boys,  one  the  son  of  a  man 
of  extreme  wealth,  whose  property  cannot  be  less  than  $500,000;  anc[  \}]e  other 
the  son  of  an  Irish  laborer  employed  by  the  city  at  a  dollar  a  day  to  sAveep  the 
streets.  The  latter  boy  was  the  better  scholar." 

The  Principal  of  the  English  High  School  in  a  letter  writes, — 

"  The  school  under  my  charge  is  pricipally  composed  of  what  are  called  the 
middling  classes  of  our  city.  At  present,  about  one  third  of  my  pupils  are  sons 
of  merchants  ;  the  remaining  two  thirds  are  sons  of  professional  men,  mechan- 
ics and  others.  Some  of  our  best  scholars  are  sons  of  coopers,  lamplighters, 
and  day  laborers.  A  few  years  ago,  he  who  ranked,  the  last  year  of  his  course, 
as  our  third  scholar,  was  the  son.  of  a  lamplighter,  and  worked  three  nights  per 
week,  during  his  whole  course,  to  save  his  father  the  expense  of  books,  &c., 
while  at  school.  This  year  my  second  (if  not  the  first,)  scholar,  is  a  cooper's 
son.  We  have  several  sons  of  clergymen  of  distinction  and  lawyers  of  emi- 
nence. Indeed,  the  school  is  a  perfect  example  of  the  poor  and  the  rich,  meet- 
ing on  common  ground  and  on  terms  quite  democratic. 

The  Principal  of  the.  High  School  for  girls  in  Newburyport,  writes, 

"The  Female  High  School  was  established  by  the  town  of  Newburyport 
nearly  three  years  since,  under  great  opposition.  It  was  the  desire  ol  its  princi- 
pal advocates  to  make  it  such  a  school,  in  respect  to  the  course  of  instruction, 
and  facilities  for  acquiring  knowledge,  and  laying  the  foundation  for  usefulness, 
as  should  so  successfully  compete  with  our  best  private  schools,  as  to  supersede 
their  necessity." 

"A  few  days  after  we  were  organized,  a  gentleman  came  into  the  school- 
room to  make  some  inquiries  respecting  the  classes  of  society  most  fully  rep- 
resented amongst  us.  I  was  totally  unable  to  give  him  the  desired  information, 
and  judging  from  the  appearance  of  the  individuals  of  my  charge,  I  could  form 
no  idea  as  to  who  were  the  children  of  poor  parents,  or  of  those  in  better  cir- 
cumstances. I  mentioned  the  names  of  the  parents  of  several,  which  I  had 
just  taken,  and,  amongst  others,  of  two  young  ladies  of  seventeen  or  eighteen 
years  of  age,  who,  at  that  moment,  it  being  recess,  were  walking  down  the 
room,  with  their  arms  closely  entwined  about  each  other's  necks.  '  The  first 
of  the  two,'  said  the  gentleman,  '  is  a  daughter  of  one  of  our  first  merchants, 
the  other  has  a  father  worse  than  none,  who  obtains  a  livelihood  from  one  of  the 
lowest  and  most  questionable  occupations,  and  is  himself  most  degraded ' 
These  two  young  ladies  were  classmates  for  more  than  two  years,  and  very 
nearly  equal  in  scholarship.  The  friendship  they  have  formed,  I  am  confident 
no  circumstances  of  station  in  life  can  ever  impair. 

"We  have  had  in  our  number  many  from  the  best  families,  in  all  respects,  in 
the  place.  They  sit  side  by  side,  ttiey  recite,  and  they  associate  most  freely 
with  those  of  the  humblest  parentage,  whose  widowed  mothers,  perhaps,  toil 
day  after  day,  at  a  wash-tub,  without  fear  of  contamination,  or,  as  I  honestly 
believe,  a  thought  of  the  differences  which  exist.  I  have,  at  present,  both  ex- 
tremes under  my  charge— the  child  of  affluence  and  the  child  of  low  parentage 
and  deep  poverty.  As  my  arrangements  of  pupils  in  divisions,  &c.  are,  most  of 
them,  alphabetical,  it  often  happens  that  the  two  extremes  are  brought  together. 
This  never  causes  a  murmur,  or  look  of  dislike. 


PUBLIC  HIGH  SCHOOL.  271 

A  member  of  the  School  Committee  of  Worcester,  Mass.,  writes: 

"  Our  High  School  is  exceedingly  popular  with  all  classes,  and  in  the  school- 
rooms and  on  the  play-grounds,  the  children  of  the  richest  and  poorest  mingle 
with  perfect  equality.  No  assumption, — no  jealousy  are  seen  among  them.  I 
have  been  charmed  with  this  republican  and  Christian  character  of  the  school. 
I  have  seen  the  children  of  parents  whose  wealth  was  estimated  by  hundreds  of 
thousands,  in  the  same  school-room  with  children  (and  those  last  among  the 
best  scholars  of  their  class)  whose  parents  have  been  assisted  year  after  year 
by  individual  charity.  The  manners,  habits,  and  moral  sentiments  of  this 
school  are  as  pure  and  high  as  in  any  academy,  or  female  seminary  of  the 
same  grade  in  the  commonwealth. 

"  To  the  improvements  of  our  public  schools,  which  has  been  going  steadily 
forward  since  1825,  does  this  town  owe  more  of  its  prosperity,  its  large  acces- 
sion of  families  from  abroad,  especially  of  industrious  and  skillful  mechanics 
than  to  all  other  causes  combined.  As  a  mere  investment  of  capital,  men  o; 
wealih  everywhere  cannot  do  better  with  a  portion  of  their  property  than 
to  build  elegant  and  attractive  school-houses,  and  open  in  them  free  schools 
of  the  highest  order  of  instruction.  They  will  then  see  gathering  around 
them  men,  it  may  be.  of  small  means,  but  of  practical  skill,  and  moral  and 
industrious  habits ;  that  class  of  families  who  feel  that  one  of  the  great  ends 
of  life  is  to  educate  their  children  well." 

A  correspondent  from  Brattleboro',  Vt.,  writes: 

"  In  the  same  school-room,  seated  side  by  side,  according  to  age  and  attain- 
ments, are  eighty  children,  representing  all  classes  and  conditions  in  society. 
The  lad  or  miss,  whose  father  pays  a  school  tax  of  thirty-five  dollars,  by  the 
side  of  another  whose  expense  of  instruction  is  five  cents  per  annum.  They 
play  cordially  and  happily  on  the  same  grounds,  and  pursue  the  same  studies — 
the'former  frequently  incited  by  the  native  superiority  and  practical  good  sense 
of  the  latter.  While  the  contact  corrects  the  factitious  gentility  and  false  ideas 
of  superiority  in  the  one,  it  encourages  cleanliness  and  good  breeding  in  the 
other." 

The  history  of  the  High  School  in  Providence  is  the  history  of 
almost  every  similar  institution. 

"The  High  School  was  the  only  feature  of  our  system  which  encountered 
much  opposition.  When  first  proposed,  its  bearings  on  the  schools  belotv,  and 
in  various  ways  on  the  cause  of  education  in  the  city,  was  not  clearly  seen.  It 
was  opposed  because  it  was  "  aristocratic,"  "  because  it  was  unconstitutional 
to  tax  property  for  a  city  college,"  "  because  it  would  educate  children  above 
working  for  their  support,"  "because  a  poor  boy  or  girl  would  never  be  seen  in 
it"— and  for  all  such  contradictory  reasons.  Before  it  became  a  part  of  the 
system,  the  question  of  its  adoption,  or  rejection,  was  submitted  directly  to  the 
people,  who  passed  in  its  favor  by  a  vote  of  two  thirds  of  all  the  legal  voters  of 
the  city.  Even  after  this  expression  of  popular  vote  in  its  favor,  and  after  the 
building  for  its  accommodation  was  erected,  there  was  a  considerable  minority 
who  circulated  a  petition  to  the  City  Council  against  its  going  into  operation. 
But  the  school  was  opened,  and  now  it  would  be  as  easy  to  strikeout  the  whole 
or  any  other  feature  of  the  system  as  this.  Its  influence  in  giving  stimulus  and 
steadiness  to  the  workings  of  the  lower  grade  of  schools, — in  giving  thorough- 
ness and  expansion  to  the  whole  course  of  instruction, — in  assisting  to  train 
teachers  for  our  city  and  country  schools, — and  in  bringing  together  the  older 
and  more  advanced  pupils,  of  either  sex,  from  families  of  every  profession,  oc- 
cupation and  location  in  the  city,  many  of  whom,  but  for  the  opportunities  of 
this  school,  would  enter  on  the  business  and  duties  of  life  with  an  imperfect 
education — has  demonstrated  its  own  usefulness  as  a  part  of  the  system,  and 
has  converted  its  opponents  into  friends." 

Testimony  of  the  same  character  might  be  adduced  from  Phila 
delphia,  Lowell,  New  Orleans,  and  every  place  where  a  school  of 
this  grade  has  been  established. 

The  growth  and  influence  of  a  Public  High  School,  when  liberally 
sustained,  is  admirably  illustrated  in  the  history  of  the  Central  High 
School  of  Philadelphia. 


272  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

NORMAL  SCHOOLS,  OR  TEACHERS'  SEMINARIES. 

By  a  Normalf  School,  or  Teachers'  Seminary,  is  meant  an  insti- 
tution for  the  training  of  young  men  and  young  women  who  aim  to 
be  teachers,  to  a  thorough  and  practical  knowledge  of  the  duties  of  the 
school-room,  and  to  the  best  modes  of  reaching  the  heart  and  intel- 
lect, and  of  developing  and  building  up  the  whole  character  of  a 
child.  It  aims  to  do  for  the  young  and  inexperienced  teacher,  all 
that  the  direction  and  example  of  the  master-workman,  and  all  that 
the  experience  of  the  workshop  do  for  the  young  mechanic — all  that 
the  naval  and  military  schools  do  for  those  who  lead  in  any  capacity 
in  the  army  or  navy — all  that  the  law  school,  or  the  medical  school, 
or  the  theological  seminary  do  for  the  professions  of  law,  medicine, 
or  theology.  In  every  department  of  mechanical,  artistic,  or  profes- 
sional labor,  the  highest  skill  is  attained  only  after  long  and  appro- 
priate training  under  wise  superintendence ;  and  the  Normal  School 
aims  to  impart  this  previous  training  by  providing  a  thorough  course 
of  instruction,  under  competent  teachers,  with  reference  to  teaching 
the  same  things  to  others.  This  course  of  instruction  involves  the 
whole  art  of  teaching — a  knowledge  of  human  nature,  and  of  a 
child's  nature  in  particular — of  the  human  mind,  and  especially  of  a 
child's  mind,  and  of  the  order  in  which  its  several  faculties  should 
be  called  into  exercise  ;  of  the  best  motives  by  which  good  habits 
of  study  can  be  cultivated  in  the  young ;  of  the  arrangement  and 
classification  of  scholars,  and  of  the  best  means  and  appliances  for 
securing  obedience  and  order,  and  keeping  alive  an  interest  in  the 
daily  exercises  of  the  school.  And  this  art  of  teaching  must  be 
illustrated  and  exemplified  by  those  who  are  to  apply  it,  in  a  model 
school.  The  idea  of  such  a  school  is  not  a  mere  speculation  oi 
ardent  benevolence — it  is  an  existing  reality  in  this  country  as  well 
as  in  Europe. 

The  first  school  specially  destined  for  educating  and  training 
teachers  in  the  principles  and  practice  of  their  profession,  was  in- 
stituted by  the  Abbe  de  La  Salle,  while  Canon  of  the  Cathedral  at 
Rheims,  in  1681,  and  was  perfected  into  the  Institute  of  the  Brothers 
of  the  Christian  Schools,  in  1684. 

In  1697,  Augustus  Herman  Franke  founded,  in  connection  with 
his  orphan  school  at  Halle,  a  teacher's  class  composed  of  poor  stu- 
dents, who  assisted  him  certain  hours  in  the  day  in  his  schools,  in 
return  for  their  board  and  instruction.  Out  of  these,  he  selected, 
about  the  year  1704,  twelve,  who  exhibited  the  right  basis  of  piety, 
knowledge,  and  aptness  to  teach,  and  constituted  them  his  "  Semi- 
narium  Praeceptomrn"  or  Teachers  Seminary.  These  pupils  re- 
ceived separate  instruction  for  two  years,  and  acquired  a  due 
degree  of  practical  skill,  in  the  classes  of  the  same  general  estab- 
lishment. Teachers  thus  trained,  and  hundreds  of  others,  who  re- 
sorted to  Halle,  to  profit  by  the  organization  and  spirit  of  the 
schools  of  Franke,  disseminated  a  knowledge  of  better  methods  of 
school  organization  and  instruction  throughout  Europe,  in  the 
course  of  the  next  half  century. 

In  1735,  the  first  regular  seminary  for  teachers  in  Prussia  wag 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE.  273 

established  in  Pomerania,  and  the  second  at  Berlin,  in  1748,  by 
Hecker,  a  pupil  of  Franke.  By  a  royal  ordinance  in  1752,  Frederic 
2d  enjoined  that  all  vacancies  in  the  country  schools  on  the  crown 
lands,  in  certain  sections  of  his  kingdom,  should  be  supplied  by  pu- 
pils from  Hecker's  Seminary.  The  King  at  the  same  time  allowed 
an  annual  stipend  for  the  support  of  twelve  alumni  of  this  establish- 
ment, a  number  which  in  1788  was  raised  to  sixty.  In  1773,  the 
chools  established  at  Rekahn,  in  Brandenburg,  became  the  model 
schools  to  which  young  men  resorted  from  every  part  of  Germany 
to  be  trained  in  the  principles  and  practice  of  primary  instruction. 
Prior  to  1800,  there  were  but  six  of  these  institutions  in  Prussia.. 
But  it  is  the  pride  and  glory  of  this  monarchy,  that  in  periods  of  the 
greatest  national  distress  and  disaster,  when  the  armies  of  France 
were  desolating  her  fields,  occupying  her  citadels,  and  diverting  her 
revenues,  the  great  work  of  improving  her  schools  was  never  lost 
sight  of.  The  establishment  of  teachers'  seminaries  still  went  for- 
ward;  that  at  Konigsburg  in  1809,  at  Branersburg  in  1810,  and  at 
Breslau  in  1812.  But  not  content  with  establishing  these  semina- 
ries at  home,  the  most  promising  young  teachers  were  sent  into 
other  countries  to  acquire  a  knowledge  of  all  improvements  in  the 
science  and  art  of  education. 

Normal  Schools  were  introduced  into  Hanover  in  1757;  into  Aus- 
tria in  1767;  into  Switzerland  in  1805;  into  France  in  1808  ;  into 
Holland  in  1816  ;  into  Belgium  in  1843,  and  into  England  in  1842. 

In  Prussia  and  most  of  the  German  States,  there  are  now  enough 
of  these  institutions  to  supply  the  demand  for  teachers  in  the  public 
schools.  Saxony,  with  a  population  less  than  that  of  the  State  of 
New  York,  supports  five  Normal  Schools,  arid  Saxe-Weimar,  with  a 
population  less  than  that  of  Connecticut,  supports  two.  Prussia,  with 
a  population  of  fourteen  millions,  has  at  this  time  forty-nine  semina- 
ries, in  which  there  are  nearly  three  thousand  teachers.  At  the  end 
of  three  years  after  leaving  the  seminary,  the  young  teachers  return 
for  a  re-examiriation. 

In  Great  Britain,  after  years  of  strenuous  effort  on  the  part  of  the 
friends  of  popular  education,  the  importance  of  Normal  Schools  as 
the  chief  means  for  improving  the  qualifications  of  teachers,  has 
been  recognized  by  the  Government.  The  Training  School  at 
Chelsea,  (called  St.  Mark's  College,)  under  the  management  of  the 
National  Society,  the  Normal  and  Model  School  of  the  British  and 
Foreign  School  Society,  the  Battersea  Training  School,  and  the 
Model  School  of  the  Infant  School  Society  in  England,  the  Model 
School  of  the  National  Board  for  Ireland,  the  Normal  Schools  at 
Edinburgh  and  Glasgow  in  Scotland,  are  all  aided  out  of  the  annual 
parliamentary  grant  for  education. 

In  this  country,  the  claims  of  these  institutions  were  first  distinctly 
presented  by  Rev.  Thomas  H.  Gallaudet,  of  Hartford,  Conn.,  in 
1825,  and  by  James  G.  Carter,  of  Lancaster,  Mass.,  in  a  series  of 
essays  on  the  subject,  and  by  William  Russell,  of  Boston,  in  the 
Journal  of  Education  for  1826.  One  fact  is  certain,  the  improve- 
ment of  schools  in  every  country  has  followed  hand  in  hand  with  the 
establishment,  multiplication,  and  improvement  of  Normal  Schools. 

18 


274  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

PLANS  AND  DESCRIPTIONS  OF  THE  MASSACHUSETTS  NORMAL 
SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

THE  following  plans  and  descriptions  are  copied  from  the  "  Tenth  Annual 
Report  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Massachusetts  Board  of  Education,"  with  the 
permission  of  the  Hon.  Horace  Mann,  by  whose  indefatigable  labors  these 
institutions  were  founded,  seconded  as  his  efforts  were  by  the  munificent 
donation  of  the  sum  of  ten  thousand  dollars,  from  the  Hon.  Edmund  Dwight, 
of  Boston. 

These  buildings  were  erected  partly  out  of  the  contribution  of  $5000,  sub- 
scribed originally  by  the  friends  of  Mr.  Mann,  as  a  testimony  of  their  esteem 
for  his  public  services,  and,  at  his  suggestion,  invested  in  this  way—  thus  con- 
rer'ing  these  edifices  into  the  monuments  of  their  generosity,  and  of  his  self- 


BRIDGEWATER  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL-HOUSE. 
Fig.  1.  —  FRONT  ELEVATION. 


This  edifice  is  constructed  of  wood,  and  is  sixty-four  feet  by  forty-two,  and 
two  stories  in  height.  The  upper  story  is  divided,  into  a  principal  school 
room,  forty-one  feet  by  forty,  and  two  recftation-noms,  e^cfc  t*vcit"  fr^t  b* 
twelve,  and  is  designed  for  the  Normal  School.  The  Inwer  st«ry  i?"  titled  u» 
for  a  Model  School. 


MASSACHUSETTS  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL-HOUSES  275 

BRIDGEWATER  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL-HOUSE. 
Fig.  2. — LOWER  STORT. 


D,  D— Doors,  one  for  males,  the  other  for  females.  E,  E — Hall-entries, 
into  which  the  doors  D,  D  open,  19  feet  by  15.  A,  A— Stairways,  leading 
from  the  entries  to  the  Normal  School-room^  M,  S,  R— Model  School-room, 
40  feet  by  24,  with  single  seats  and  desks.  H— Entry-way,  6  feet  8  inches 
wide,  for  Model  School  scholars.  At  each  end  of  this  entry  is  an  outside 
door,  for  the  entrance  of  the  Model  School  scholars— a  separate  entrance  for 
each  sex.  G,  F— Laboratory  and  chemical  room,  or  lecture-room,  connected 
by  folding  doors.  The  two  rooms  40  feet  by  16.  B,  C— Back  stairways. 


276  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

BRIDGEWATER  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL-HOUSE. 
Fig.  3.— UPPER  STORY. 


A  A— Separate  stairways,  for  the  different  sexes,  leading  from  the  lower 
entries,  or  halls,  to  the  Normal  School-room.  N,  S,  R— Normal  School-room 
41  feet  by  40.  c,  c,  c— Single  seats,  d,  d— Double  desks.  P,  P,  P— Teachers 
platform,  e,  e,  e,  e,  e— Behind  the  platform  are  recesses  in  the  partition  foi 
a  library,  e,  e— Between  R,  R,  are  closets  for  apparatus.  R,  R — Recitatioa- 
rooms,  22  feet  by  12.  B,  C— Back  stairways. 


MASSACHUSETTS  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL-HOUSES.  277 

WESTFIFLD  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL-HOUSE. 
Fig.  4.— FROKT  ELXVATIOIC 


This  edifice  is  of  brick,  of  the  size  of  sixty-two  feet  by  forty  feet,  with  a 
portico  of  eight  feet  at  each  end  of  the  building,  and  is  two  stories  in  height. 
The  Normal  School-room  is  about  forty  feet  square,  and  is  provided  with  two 
recitation-rooms.  The  first  story  is  fitted  up  with  a  room  large  enough  to 
accommodate  a  Model  School,  which  is  composed  of  the  children  of  one  of 
the  districts  in  the  town  of  Westfield,  the  district  having  paid  the  sum  ot 
$1500  towards  the  erection  of  the  building,  and  being  obligated  to  pay  aa 
agreed  proportion  of  the  expenses  of  fuel,  instruction,  &c: 


278 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

WESTPIELD  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL-HOUSE. 
Fig.  5. — LOWER  STORY. 


N 

p 

u 

or    "OH 

MASSACHUSETTS  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL  HOUSES. 


279 


WESTFIELD  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL-HOUSE. 
Fig.  6.— UPPER  STORY. 


S,  S — Stairways,  leading  from  entry  to  Normal  School-room.  N,  S,  R — 
Normal  School-room,  38  feet  by  37.  e,  e — Single  seats,  d,  d— Double  desks. 
P,  P — Platform,  with  recesses  in  the  partition  behind  for  a  library,  c,  c — 
Closets  for  apparatus.  R.  R— Recitation-rooms,  one  22  feet  by  11,  the  other 
22  feet  by  10*. 


230  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

FRAMINGHAM  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL-HOUSE. 

The  State  Normal  School  at  Framingham  is  designed  for  female  teachers,  and 
was  originally  established  at  Lexington,  in  July,  1838,  and  removed  to  West 
Newton  in  1846,  and  to  Framingham  in  1853.  In  each  instance,  as  larger  and 
better  accommodations  were  demanded,  the  location  was  determined  mainly  by 
the  liberality  of  the  citizens,  in  offering  greater  facilities  than  other  towns  for  the 
improvement  of  the  pupils. 

In  1852,  the  legislature  appropriated  six  thousand  dollars,  to  defray  the  ex- 
penses of  providing  a  more  commodious  site  and  building,  and  the  necessary 
appurtenances  and  apparatus  for  the  accommodation  of  the  Normal  School, 
established  at  West  Newton,  to  be  expended  for  that  purpose  by  the  Board  of 
Education,  which  was  directed  to  receive  propositions  from  towns  or  individuals 
in  aid  of  the  object,  and  to  make  such  selection  as  would  best  subserve  the  inter- 
ests and  accommodate  the  wants  of  the  school.  The  Board  selected  a  site  in  the 
town  of  Framingham,  offered  to  them  by  several  of  its  citizens,  the  town  itself 
having  voted  the  sum  of  two  thousand  five  hundred  dollars  toward  the  erection 
of  the  building,  and  the  Boston  and  Worcester  Railroad  Company  having  also 
contributed  the  further  sum  of  two  thousand  dollars  for  the  same  object. 

The  lot  contains  four  and  three-quarters  acres  of  land,  situated  a  few  rods  south 
of  the  central  village  of  the  town,  on  the  south-western  slope  of  a  hill  of  gentle 
declivity,  protected  on  the  north  by  a  grove  of  forest  trees,  and  commanding  a 
view  of  the  surrounding  country  of  wide  extent  and  great  beauty.  The  neighbor- 
ing village  is  retired  and  quiet,  containing  three  churches  of  different  denominations, 
and  a  sufficient  number  of  inhabitants  to  afford  homes  for  the  pupils,  while  the 
character  of  the  people,  owing  to  the  absence  of  large  manufacturing  establishments, 
to  the  predominance  of  agricultural  pursuits,  and  the  residence  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  many  gentlemen  who  have  either  retired  from  business,  or  pursue  it  in 
the  city  at  a  distance  from  their  dwellings,  is  calculated  to  exercise  a  favorable  in- 
fluence upon  the  young  ladies  wilo  will  compose  the  school. 

The  building  is  in  the  Norman  style  of  architecture,  sixty  feet  square,  two  stories 
high,  with  an  entrance  arcade,  of  the  same  height,  thirty-two  feet  in  length  and 
fourteen  in  width. 

The  first  story  is  finished,  ten  feet  six  inches  in  height,  containing  entrance  halls 
and  stair-cases,  a  commodious  lecture  room,  which  can  also  be  used  as  a  recitation 
room,  an  apparatus  room  adjoining  the  latter,  a  large  recitation  room,  a  dressing- 
room,  with  rooms  adjoining,  containing  water-closets  and  other  conveniences. 

The  second  or  principal  story  is  finished,  seventeen  feet  high,  and  is  reached  by 
two  wide  stair-cases,  with  two  entrances  to  the  school-room,  which  measures  fifty- 
seven  feet  by  thirty-six  feet  six  inches,  and  has  accommodations  for  one  hundred 
and  twenty  pupils,  which  may  be  extended  to  one  hundred  and  fifty,  with  a  recita- 
tion room,  a  library,  and  the  principal's  room  adjoining.  The  three  last- mentioned 
rooms  are  finished,  eight  feet  six  inches  in  height,  and  over  them  is  a  large  recita- 
tion room,  and  a  room  for  the  water  cistern  and  storage. 

The  entire  interior  of  the  two  stories  is  heated  by  furnaces  in  the  cellar,  and 
ventilated  in  a  manner  to  insure  a  circulation  of  pure  air  at  all  times. 

The  house,  (with  furniture,  fence,  and  appurtenances,)  cost  $15,750.00,  and  was 
dedicated  by  an  appropriate  address,  by  George  B.  Emerson,  which  is  published 
in  the  Seventeenth  Annual  Report  of  the  Board  of  Education,  of  which  he  is  one 
of  the  most  efficient  members. 

It  may  be  mentioned  here,  to  the  credit  of  the  legislature  of  Massachusetts  in 
1853,  that,  besides  making  an  appropriation  for  the  Normal  School  building  above 
described,  and  for  the  erection  of  a  fourth  Normal  School-house  at  Salem,  and  to 
aid  pupils  to  prolong  their  attendance  at  these  schools,  forty-eight  State  scholar- 
ships in  the  colleges  of  Massachusetts  were  established,  to  provide  for  the  educa- 
tion and  training  of  young  men  for  the  office  of  principal  teacher  in  the  Higl 
Schools  of  the  State.  To  each  scholarship  the  sum  of  $100  per  annum,  for  fou; 
years,  is  guarantied.  The  appointments  are  made  by  the  Board  of  Education, 
To  George  B.  Emerson,  Esq.,  belongs  the  credit  of  bringing  this  subject  before 
the  committee  of  the  legislature  in  a  manner  to  command  their  unanimow 
approval.  Mr.  Emerson  was  the  author  of  the  memorial  to  the  legislature,  ir 
behalf  of  Normal  Schools,  in  1835. 


FRAM1NGHAM  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

Fig.  2.— FIRST  FLOOR. 


281 


9,  9S 


0 

1 

EZ 


cc® 


•m 

"SO  'M 


IS! 


-B 111 


09 


V.  T— Ventilating  Ducts.    S.  F— Smoke  Flue.    R— Registers  for  Hot  Air. 


Fig.  3.— SECOND  FLOOR. 


282  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

PLANS  AND  DESCRIPTIONS  OF  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL  AT  ALBANY, 
NEW  YORK. 


Fig.  1. — PERSPECTIVE. 

The  Normal  School  for  the  State  of  New  York  was  established  by  an  act  of 
the  Legislature,  in  1844,  "for  the  instruction  and  practice  of  Teachers  of  Com- 
mon Schools,  in  the  science  of  Education  and  the  art  of  Teaching," — such  an 
institution,  having  been  first  recommended  to  the  Legislature  by  Governor  De 
Wit  Clinton,  in  his  message  to  the  Legislature  in  1825,  and  again,  in  1826,  "as 
the  best  plan  of  obtaining  able  teachers  that  could  be  derived,"  and  because  it  was 
well  calculated  to  have  "  most  benign  influence  on  individual  happiness  and  social 
prosperity."  After  an  experiment  of  seventeen  years,  in  trying  to  train  teachers 
in  departments  connected  with  certain  academies — aided  for  this  purpose  out 
of  the  Literature  Fund — on  the  recommendation  of  Samuel  Young,  Superintendent 
of  Common  Schools,  and  through  the  efforts  of  Calvin  T.  Hulburd,  Chairman  of 
the  Committee  on  Colleges,  Academies,  and  Common  Schools,  in  the  House  of 
Representatives,  Samuel  S.  Randall,  Deputy  Superintendent,  Francis  Dwight, 
Editor  of  the  District  School  Journal,  Prof,  (now  Bishop)  Potter,  the  sum  of 
$10,000  annually,  for  six  years,  was  appropriated  in  1844,  for  the  support  of  a  Nor- 
mal School.  It  went  into  operation  on  the  18th  of  December,  1844,  in  a  build- 
ing provided  gratuitously  by  the  city  of  Albany,  and  temporarily  fitted  up  for  that 
purpose. 

In  1848,  an  act  was  passed  by  the  Legislature  "  for  the  permanent  establishment 
of  a  State  Normal  School,"  appropriating  $15,000  toward  the  erection  of  a  suita- 
ble building.  The  following  year  an  additional  appropriation  of  $10,000  was  made 
for  its  completion.  A  large  and  commodious  edifice,  (see  Figs.  1,2,  3,  4,  5,  6,) 
containing  a  dwelling-house  for  the  Principal,  has  accordingly  been  erected  on  the 
corner  of  Lodge  and  Howard-streets,  adjoining  the  State  Geological  and  Agricul- 
tural Rooms.  To  this  building  the  school  was  removed  on  the  31st  of  July,  1849. 


NEW  YORK  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 


283 


Fio.  2.    PLAN  or  BASEMENT. 


The  Basement  extends  un- 
der the  entire  building,  and 
is  used  for  fuel,  furnaces, 
water-closets,  (which  are  so 
constructed  and  cleansed  as 
to  be  perfectly  inoffensive,) 
&c.  for  the  Normal  School ; 
and  for  kitchen,  store-room, 
laundry,  pantry,  and  other 
purposes  of  the  family  of  the 
Principal. 


284 


NEW  YORK  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 


FIG.  3.    PLAN  or  FIRST  FLOOR. 


A.  Entrance  for  males. 

B.  B.  B.  B.  B.  Janitor's 

rooms. 

C.  Laboratory. 

D.  Apparatus-room. 

E.  Entrance  for  females. 

F.  Play-room  and  calisthe- 

nic  exercise  for  females. 

G.  Reception-room   and 

office  of  school. 
H.  Entrance  into  private 

library  of  Principal. 
I.  Dining-room  of  residence 

of  Principal. 
J.  Parlors  of  Principal. 
K.  Entrance  to  residence  of 

Principal. 
r.  Registers  for  hot  air. 


NEW  YORK  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 


285 


Fio.  4.  PLAN  or  SECOND  FLOOR. 


A.  Clothes-room  for  males,  N.  S. 

B.  Philosophical  apparatus. 

C.  Recitation-room  for  X.  S. 

D.  D.  D.  Recitation-room  for  Ex- 

perimental School. 

E.  S.  Experimental  School. 

F.  Clothes-room  for  boys  of  E.  S. 

G.  Clothes-room  for  girls  of  E.  S. 
H.  Clothes-room  for  females  of 

N.  S. 

I.  L  1. 1.  Chambers  in   residence  of 
Principal. 


286 


NEW  YORK  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 


FIG.  5.   PLAN  or  THIRD  FLOOR. 


A.  Text  book  library. 

B.  Study-room  of  Normal  School. 

C.  Desk  and  chairs  for  two  pupils. 

D.  D.  D.  D.  Recitation-rooms  for  N.  S. 


a  Q 
o  D     D  a     D  Q     DO     a  a     a  a 

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QD       DD      OO      nn       DC 


a  a 

o  a     a  a      a  a 

cm  czzi  cm 

a  a  a  a  o  a 
C=l  CUD  C=I 
a  a  aa  D  a 


D  Q      a  D      a  a 

cm  cm  cz= 

a  a  a  o  no 

a  a  D  a  an 

a  a  n  a  D  a 

a  a  a  a  a  a 


NEW  YORK  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 


287 


Fio.  6.    PLAN  or  FOURTH  FLOOR. 


A.  Miscellaneous  library. 

B.  Map-room. 

C.  Lecture-room. 

D.  Recitation-room. 


STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL  OF  CONNECTICUT.          289 

PLANS  AND  DESCRIPTION  OP  THE  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL  AT  NEW 
BRITAIN,  CONNECTICUT. 

THE  Normal  School  at  New  Britain,  was  incorporated  in  1849,  by  an  "  Act  for 
the  establishment  of  a  State  Normal  School,"  "  for  the  training  of  teachers  in 
the  art  of  instructing  and  governing  the  Common  Schools  of  Jhe  State."  It  was 
located  at  New  Britain,  by  the  Board  of  Trustees  charged  with  its  management,  on 
account  of  the  central  position  of  the  town,  and  its  accessibility  from  every  section 
by  railroad  ;  and  also  in  consideration  of  the  liberal  offer,  on  the  part  of  its  citizens, 
to  provide  a  suitable  building,  apparatus,  and  library,  to  the  value  of  $16,000,  for 
the  use  of  the  institution,  and  to  place  all  the  schools  of  the  village  under  the  man- 
agement of  the  Principal  of  the  Normal  School,  as  Schools  of  Practice. 

The  building  provided  for  the  accommodation  of  the  Normal  School  and 
Schools  of  Practice  was  erected  by  an  association  of  citizens  of  New  Britain,  who 
were  incorporated  under  the  general  law  relating  to  "  Joint  Stock  Corporations," 
with  the  name  of  the  "  NEW  BRITAIN  EDUCATIONAL  FUND  ASSOCIATION." 

The  Normal  School  building  consists  of  a  structure,  70  feet  long  by  42  feet 
broad,  commenced  for  a  town  hall  before  the  location  of  the  Normal  School  in 
New  Britain,  (and  since  purchased,)  and  an  additional  structure,  76  feet  by  48. 
The  original  building  is  three  stories  in  height ;  the  new  part,  four. 

The  basement  embraces  two  passages,  one  for  males  and  one  for  females,  to  the 
yard  ;  two  large  and  convenient  dressing-rooms  ;  four  entrance  halls,  furnished 
with  hooks  for  clothes,  &c.  There  are  also  in  the  basement  story  a  room  for  the 
accommodation  of  the  Intermediate  School ;  a  room  for  one  of  the  Primary 
Schools ;  a  chemical  laboratory ;  a  spacious  wood  and  coal  room  ;  three  furnace 
rooms,  with  furnaces  and  their  fixtures  complete,  and  so  arranged  that  the  heat 
from  all  the  furnaces  can  be  thrown  into  either  one  of  the  large  apartments,  while, 
in  mild  weather,  the  heat  of  either  one  of  the  furnaces  can  be  diffused  through  the 
whole  building.  Connected  with  this  story  is  a  yard,  two  hundred  feet  long  by  one 
hundred  wide ;  three-fifths  of  it  for  the  use  of  males,  the  remainder  for  females. 
The  yard  is  surrounded  and  divided  by  a  substantial,  painted  fence,  six  feet  high. 
It  is  also  provided  with  out-buildings  of  the  most  approved  and  convenient  struc- 
ture, and  a  well,  from  which  water  may  be  drawn  in  either  yard. 

The  second  story,  besides  the  continuation  of  the  above-named  entries,  contains 
a  room  for  the  Trustees,  which,  when  not  occupied  by  them,  is  used  as  a  reception 
room  ;  five  recitation  rooms  and  a  hali,  divided  into  two  apartments,  for  the  accom- 
modation of  the  upper  and  lower  divisions  of  the  High  School  of  the  village. 

The  third  story  is  occupied  by  the  normal  school -room,  50  feet  by  40,  with  two 
large  class-rooms,  each  40  feet  long  by  35  broad,  and  a  library  and  cabinet,  35  feet 
long  by  13  feet  broad,  and  an  office  for  the  principal.  The  fourth  story,  besides  a 
hall,  72  feet  by  20,  which  can  be  used  for  declamation,  reading,  &c.,  and  a  passage 
to  the  observatory,  which  is  directly  above  it,  contains  four  large  recitation  rooms. 
The  whole  of  the  third  and  fourth  stories  are  designed  for  the  Normal  School 
proper. 

The  building  was  completed  and  opened,  for  the  accommodation  of  the  State 
Normal  School  and  the  schools  of  the  village,  as  Modei  Schools  and  Schools  of 
Practice,  on  the  4th  of  June,  1851,  in  the  presence  of  the  Governor,  and  other 
State  officers,  and  both  branches  of  the  Legislature,  with  an  address  from  the  Su- 
perintendent of  Common  Schools,  and  a  "  Speech  for  Connecticut"  by  Rev.  Horace 
Bushnell,  D.  D. 

The  building  and  grounds  cost  about  $25,000,  toward  which  the  State  has  appro- 
priated a  bank  bonus  of  $4,500,  the  balance  (save  $4,000)  having  been  contributed 
by  citizens  of  New  Britain,  of  whom  Seth  J.  North  subscribed  $6,000. 

To  those  who  should  consult  the  plans  of  this  building,  with  a  view  of  adopting 
any  features  of  the  same  in  the  construction  of  other  buildings,  it  may  be  well  to 
remark,  that  the  mode  of  warming  and  ventilation  has  not  proved  satisfactory, 
o%ving  to  the  position  of  the  furnaces,  and  the  position  and  smallness  of  the  venti- 
lating flues.  Tt  has  been  found  necessary  to  place  one  of  Chilson's  portable  fur- 
naces in  both  the  Primary  and  Intermediate  school-rooms,  (S,  S,  Fig  2,)  to  warm 
the  school-room,  recitation  room,  and  library,  on  the  first  and  second  floors  imme- 
diately above. 

The  State  appropriates  $4,000  a  year  toward  the  current  expenses  of  the 
institution.  1 9 


290 


PLAN  OF  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL-HOUSE. 
FIGURE  2.     PLAN  OF  BASEMENT  STORY. 


A.— Primary  School-room. 

B. — Intermediate  School-room. 

C. — Hall  leading  to  yard  for  females. 

D. — Hall  leading  to  yard  for  males. 

E. — Entrances  to  Normal  School,  one  for  males  and  the  other  for  female 

F. — Entrance  to  High  School,  for  girls. 

H. — Entrance  to  High  School,  for  boys. 

I.  I.  I. — Furnaces. 

J. — Stove  to  dry  wet  feet,  accessible  on  each  side. 

O.  O. — Clothes  rooms,  one  for  boys  and  the  other  for  girls. 

P. — Laboratory. 

L.— Coal,  &c. 


PLAN  OF  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL  HOUSE.  291 

FIGURE  3.     PLAN  OF  FIRST  FLOOR. 


A. — High  School-room,  with  seats  and  desks  for  120  pupils. 

B. — Office  of  Principal  of  Normal  School,  and  Class-room. 

C. — Reception  room. 

E. — Grammar  School-room,  with  seats  and  desks  for  120  pupils. 

D.  D.  D.  D. — Recitation  rooms. 

F. — Front  stairs  to  Hall. 

G. — Side  stairs  to  Normal  School-room. 

H. — Stairs  for  girls  from  basement  to  High  School-room. 

I. — Stairs  for  boys  from  basement  to  High  School-room. 


292 


PLAN  OF  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL-HOUSE. 
FIGURE  4.     PLAN  OF  SECOND  FLOOR. 


A. — Normal  School-room,  with  seats  and  desks  for  120  pupils,  and  capable  of 
-seating  with  corridor,  220  pupils. 

B. — Corridor  ;  connecting  with  Normal  School-room  by  folding  doors. 

C. — Office  for  Trustees  of  Normal  School,  and  occupied  by  Associate  Principal 
as  an  office. 

D Recitation  and  Lecture  room,  34  feet  by  29,  for  Junior  Class  of  Normal 

School. 

E.— Recitation  and  Lecture  room,  34  feet  by  29,  for  Middle  Class  of  Normal 
School. 

F.— Library.     34  by  13. 

G. — Stairs  to  Normal  School,  for  Females. 

£L— Stairs,  to  Normal  School  for  Males. 


PLAN  OF  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL  HOUSE. 


293 


FIGURE  5.     PLAN  OF  THIRD  FLOOR. 


A.  A.  A.  A.— Recitation  study  rooms  for  Normal  pupils. 

B.— Library  of  Textbooks. 

C. — Attic. " 

D.— Hall  for  Calisthenics. 


294  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

PLANS  OF  CITY  NORMAL  SCHOOL-HOUSE  IN  PHILADELPHIA. 

The  Normal  School  of  Philadelphia  was  instituted  in  1848,  "  for  the  thorough 
training  of  female  teachers  of  the  public  schools,  in  those  branches  of  a  good  Eng- 
lish education,  and  in  such  practical  exercises  as  will  discipline  and  develop  the 
mind,  adorn  and  elevate  the  character,  insure  the  best  mode  of  imparting  knowl- 
edge, establish  uniformity  in  teaching,  prevent  fruitless  experiments,  manifold 
mistakes,  and  irreparable  loss  of  time,  with  all  their  consequences  to  teachers  and 
pupils."  The  building  will  accommodate  150  Normal  pupils,  and  a  School  of 
Practice  of  350  pupils,  distributed  in  eight  classes. 


Fig.  1.    PERSPECTIVE. 


Fig.  2.    PLAN  or  CELLAR. 


PHILADELPHIA  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 


295 


Fig.  3.    FIRST  FLOOR. 


CO 


Fig.   4.    SECOND  FLOOR. 


M 


R 


Fig.  5.    THIRD  FLOOR. 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE.  297 

PLAN   AND   DESCRIPTION   OF   THE   NORMAL  4*10    MODEL   SCHOOL-BUILDING   AT 
TORONTO,   UPPER  CANADA. 

The  Normal  and  Model  Schools  for  Upper  Canada,  are  situated  upon  the  cen- 
ter of  an  open  square,  bounded  on  the  north  by  Gerrard  Street,  on  the  east  by 
Church  Street,  on  the  south  by  Goold  Street,  and  on  the  west  by  Victoria  Street, 
in  the  city  of  Toronto.  The  distance  from  the  bay  is  about  three  quarters  of  a 
mile.  The  situation  is  very  beautiful,  being  considerably  elevated  above  the  busi- 
ness parts  of  the  city,  and  commanding  a  fine  view  of  the  bay,  island,  and  lake. 
The  square,  which  contains  seven  acres  and  a-half  of  ground,  was  purchased  in 
August,  1850.  The  amount  of  the  legislative  grant  for  the  purchase  of  the  site 
and  the  erection  of  the  buildings,  was  £15,000. 

The  principal  normal  school  building,  as  seen  in  the  perspective.  Fig.  1,  is  184 
feet  4  inches  frontage,  by  a  depth  on  the  flanks,  east  and  west,  of  85  feet  4  inches. 

The  front  is  in  the  Roman  Doric  order  of  Palladian  character,  having  for  its 
center,  four  pilasters  of  the  full  height  of  the  building,  with  pediment,  surrounded 
by  an  open  doric  cupola,  of  the  extreme  height  of  95  feet.  The  principal  entrance 
(to  the  officers  of  the  educational  department,  &c.,)  is  in  this  front ;  those  for  the 
male  and  female  students  being  placed  on  the  east  and  west  sides  respectively, 
C  and  D.  In  the  center  of  the  building  is  a  large  central  hall,  (open  to  the  roof, 
and  lighted  by  a  lantern)  with  a  galleiy  around  it,  at  the  level  of  the  upper  floor, 
at  B,  in  Fig.  3,  approached  on  each  floor  by  three  corridors — south,  east,  and 
west — and  opening  on  the  north  to  the  Theatre  or  Examination  Hall. 

On  the  east  side,  the  accommodation  on  the  ground  floor  is  as  follows 


School  of  Art  and  Design,  No.  1 , 36' 

School  of  Art  and  Design,  No.  2, 36 

Male  Students'  Retiring  Room, 36 

Council  Room, 39 

Male  Students'  Staircase  A, 17 

On  the  west  side  : 

Waiting  Room, 22' 

Ante-Room, 22 

Chief-Superintendent's  Room, 28 

Depository  for  Books,  Maps,  &c., 28 

Depository  for  Apparatus,  &c., 22 

Female  Students'  Retiring  Room, 36 

Recording  Clerk's  Office,  with  fire  proof  vault,.  37 

Second  Clerk's  Office 22 


0"  by  28' 

5  "    28 
0     "    30 
0     "    22 

6  "    11 


8"  by  14' 

0  "  14 

0  "  21 

0  «  21 

8  "  14 

0  "  26 

11  "  22 

0  "  14 

6  "  11 


Female  Students'  Staircase  A, 17 

North  of  the  Central  Hall  is  the  Theatre,  with  Lecturer  s  entrance  in  the  cen- 
ter, and  side  entrances  east  and  west,  d.  d,  for  male  and  female  students  respec- 
tively. Here  the  aisles  are  marked  a,  6,  and  c,  -with  seats  arranged  between 
them  :  the  Lecturer's  platform  being  placed  between  B  and  e.  This  portion  of 
the  Theatre  will  accommodate  470  persons,  and  including  the  galleries,  620. 
Around  the  Theatre,  and  beneath  its  gallery,  are  east  and  west  corridors,  by 
which  the  students  reach  the  Model  School. 

By  this  arrangement,  except  when  actually  in  the  presence  of  the  masters,  tlia 
male  and  female  students  are  entirely  separated. 

Passing  (by  the  corridors  last  named)  to  the  Model  School,  which  is  175  feet  6 
inches  frontage,  by  59  feet  6  inches,  the  students  enter  the  boys  and  girls'  schools 
by  doors  to  the  east  and  west,  each  of  which  has  a  large  school-room  at  its  center, 
56  feet  6  inches  by  33  feet,  capable  of  accommodating  300  children,  with  four 
smaller  class-rooms  adjoining  it,  about  17  feet  by  15  feet  6  inches-  each.  The 
boys  and  girls'  entrances  (like  those  for  the  students  of  the  normal  school  already 
described)  are  at  the  east  and  west  ends  of  the  building — such  entrances  having 
each  a  hat  and  cloak  room  and  master's  (or  mistress')  room  on  either  side. 
These  schools  accommodate  600  children. 

Returning  to  the  Normal  School,  and  passing  to  the  upper  floor :  on  the  land- 
ing of  the  staircases  A,  A,  are  entrances  to  the  gallery  of  the  Theatre,  which  is 
designed  to  accommodate  150  persons. 

On  the  upper  floor  is  the  Central  Hall,  with  its  gallery  B,  connecting  the  east 
and  west  corridors,  communicating  with  the  following  rooms  : 

Class  Room,No.  1, 56'  :   0"  by  36'  :    0" 


298 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


NORMAL  AND  MODEL  SCHOOLS  AT  TORONTO. 


299 


NORMAL  AND  MODEL  SCHOOLS  AT  TORONTO. 


301 


Class  Room,  No.  2, 56       0    by   36       0 

Class  Room,  No.  3, 45       2     "    28       0 

Class  Room,  No.  4, 32       8  28       0 

1st.  Master's  Room, 22       0  19       5| 

2nd.  Master's  Room 22        0  19        5J 

Museum, 42        0  22        0 

Library,    39       5  22       0 

Laboratory 21        6  12       0 

In  addition  to  the  accommodation  thus  enumerated,  there  are,  in  the  basement, 

rooms  for  the  residence  of  the  Janitor,  together  with  furnace  rooms,  from  whence 

warm  air  is  conducted  to  the  whole  building. 


VENTILATION 

EVERY  apartment  of  a  school-house  should  be  provided  with  a  cheap, 
eimple,  and  efficient  mode  of  ventilation,  by  which  the  air,  which  is  con- 
stantly becoming  vitiated  by  respiration,  combustion,  or  other  causes, 
may  be  constantly  flowing  out  of  the  room,  and  its  place  filled  by  an 
adequate  supply  of  fresh  air  drawn  from  a  pure  source,  and  admitted  into 
the  room  at  the  right  temperature,  of  the  requisite  degree  of  moisture, 
and  without  any  perceptible  current.  These  objects  may  be  attained 
by  attention  to  the  following  particulars: 

1.  The  location  of  the  school-house  must  be  healthy,  and  all  causes — 
such  as  defective  drains,  stagnant  water,  decaying  animal  or  vegetable 
substances,  and  manufactures,  whose  operations  evolve  offensive  and 
deleterious  gases — calculated  to  vitiate  the  external  atmosphere,  from 
which  the  air  of  the  school- room  is  supplied,  must  be  removed  or  obviated. 

2.  The  means  provided  for  ventilation  must  be  sufficient  to  secure  the 
object,  independent  of  doors  and  windows,  and  other  lateral  openings, 
which  are  intended  primarily  for  the  admission  of  light,  passage  to  and 
from  the  apartment,  and  similar  purposes.     Any  dependence  on  the 
opening  of  doors  and  windows,  except  in  summer,  will  subject  the  occu- 
pants of  the  room  near  such  points  to  currents  of  cold  air  when  the  pores 
of  the  skin  are  open,  and  when  such  extreme  and  rapid  changes  of  tem- 
perature are  particularly  disagreeable  and  dangerous. 

3.  Any  openings  in  the  ceiling  for  the  discharge  of  vitiated  air  into 
the  attic,  and  hence  to  the  exterior  of  the  building,  or  by  flues  carried  up 
in  the  wall,  no  matter  how  constructed  or  where  placed,  can  not  be  de- 
pended on  for  purposes  of  ventilation,  unless  systematic  arrangements 
are  adopted  to  effect,  in  concert  with  such  openings,  the  introduction  and 
diffusion  of  a  constant  and  abundant  supply  of  pure  air,  in  the  right  con- 
dition as  to  temperature  and  moisture. 

4.  All  stoves,  or  other  heating  apparatus,  standing  in  the  apartment 
to  be  warmed,  and  heating  only  the  atmosphere  of  that  apartment,  which 
is  constantly  becoming  more  and  more  vitiated  by  respiration  and  other 
causes,  are  radically  defective,  and  should  be  altogether,  without  delay, 
and  forever  discarded. 

5.  Any  apparatus  for  warming  pure  air,  before  it  is  introduced  into 
the  school-room,  in  which  the  heating  surface  becomes  red-hot,  or  the 
air  is  warmed  above  the  temperature  of  boiling  water,  is  inconsistent 
with  good  ventilation. 

6.  To  effect  the  combined  objects  of  warming  and  ventilation,  a  large 
quantity  of  moderately  heated  air  should  be  introduced  in  such  a  man- 
ner  as  to  reach  every  portion  of  the  room,  and  be  passed  off  by  appro- 


304  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

priate  openings  and  flues,  as  fast  as  its  oxygen  is  exhausted,  and  it  be- 
comes vitiated  by  carbonic  acid  gas,  and  other  noxious  qualities. 

7.  The  size  and  number  of  the  admission  flues  or  openings  will  de- 
pend on  the  size  of  the  school-room,  and  the  number  of  persons  occupy- 
ing the  same ;  but  they  should  have  a  capacity  to  supply  every  person 
in  the  room  with  at  least  five  cubic  feet  of  air  per  minute.     Warm  air 
can  be  introduced  at  a  high  as  well  as  a  low  point  from  the  floor,  pro- 
vided there  is  an  exhaustive  power  in  the  discharging  flues  sufficient  to 
secure  a  powerful  ascending  current  of  vitiated  air  from  openings  near 
the  floor. 

8.  Openings  into  flues  for  the  discharge  of  vitiated  air.  should  be 
made  at  such  points  in  the  room,  and  at  such  distances  from  the  open- 
ings for  the  admission  of  pure  warm  air.  that  a  portion  of  the  warm  air 
will  traverse  every  part  of  the  room,  and  impart  as  much  warmth  as 
possible,  before  it  becomes  vitiated  and  escapes  from  the  apartment. 

These  openings  can  be  made  near  the  floor,  at  points  most  distant 
from  the  admission  flues,  provided  there  is  a  fire-draught,  or  other  power 
operating  in  the  discharging  flues,  sufficient  to  overcome  the  natural 
tendency  of  the  warm  air  in  the  room  to  ascend  to  the  ceiling;  other- 
wise they  should  be  inserted  in  or  near  the  ceiling. 

Openings  at  the  floor  are  recommended,  not  because  carbonic  acid 
gas,  being  heavier  than  the  other  elements  of  atmospheric  air,  settles  to 
the  floor,  (because,  owing  to  the  law  of  the  diffusion  of  gases  among 
each  other,  carbonic  acid  gas  will  be  found  equally  diffused  through  the 
room,)  but  because,  when  it  can  be  drawn  off  at  the  floor,  it  will  carry 
along  with  it  the  cold  air  which  is  admitted  by  open  doors,  and  at 
cracks  and  crevices,  and  also  the  offensive  gases  sometimes  found  in 
school-rooms. 

9.  All  openings,  both  for  the  admission  and  discharge  of  air,  should 
be  fitted  with  valves  and  registers,  to  regulate  the  quantity  of  air  to 
pass  through  them.     The  quantity  of  air  to  be  admitted  should  be  reg- 
ulated before  it  passes  over  the  heating  surface;  otherwise,  being  con- 
fined in  the  air  chamber  and  tubes,  the  excessive  heat  will  cause  much 
injury  to  the  pipes  and  the  woodwork  adjoining. 

10.  All  flues  for  ventilation,  not  intended  to  act  in  concert  with  some 
motive  power,  such  as  a  fan,  a  pump,  the  mechanism  of  a  clock,  a  fire- 
draught,  a  jet  of  steam,  &c.,  but  depending  solely  on  the  spontaneous 
upward  movement  of  the  column  of  warm  air  within  them,  should  be 
made  large,  (of  a  capacity  equal  to  at  least  18  inches  in  diameter.)  tight, 
(except  the  openings  at  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  room,)  smooth,  (if 
made  of  boards,  the  boards  should  be  seasoned,  matched,  and  planed; 
if  made  of  bricks,  the  flue  should  be  round,  and  finished  smooth,)  and 
carried  up  on  the  inside  of  the  room,  or  in  the  inner  wall,  with  as  few 
angles  and  deviations  from  a  direct  ascent  as  possible,  above  the  highest 
point  of  the  roof. 

11.  All  flues  for  the  discharge  of  vitiated  air,  even  when  properly 
constructed  and  placed,  and  even  when  acting  in  concert  with  a  current 


VENTILATION.  305 

of  warm  air  flowing  into  the  room,  should  be  supplied  with  some  simple 
reliable  exhaustive  power,  which  can  be  applied  at  all  seasons  of  the 
year,  and  with  a  force  varying  with  the  demands  of  the  season,  and  the 
condition  of  the  air  in  the  apartment. 

12.  The  most  simple,  economical,  and  reliable  motive  power  available 
in  most  school-houses  is  heat,  or  the  same  process  by  which  the  natural 
upward  movements  of  air  are  induced  and  sustained.     Heat  can  be  ap- 
plied to  the  column  of  air  in  a  ventilating  flue — 

1.  By  carrying  up  the  ventilating  flue  close  beside,  or  even  within  the 
smoke  flue,  which  is  used  in  connection  with  the  heating  apparatus. 

2.  By  carrying  up  the  smoke-pipe  within  the  ventilating  flue,  either 
the  whole  length,  or  in  the  upper  portion  only.     In  a  small  school-room, 
the  heat  from  the  smoke-pipe  carried  up  for  a  few  feet  only  in  the  ven- 
tilating flue  before  it  projects  above  the  roof,  is  a  motive  power  sufficient 
to  sustain  a  constant  draught  of  cool  and  vitiated  air,  into  a  opening  near 
the  floor. 

3.  By  kindling  a  fire  at  the  bottom,  or  other  convenient  point  in  the 
ventilating  flue — 

If  the  same  flue  is  used  for  smoke  from  the  fire,  and  vitiated  air  from 
the  apartment,  some  simple  self-acting  valve  or  damper  should  be  ap- 
plied to  the  opening  for  the  escape  of  the  vitiated  air,  which  shall  close 
at  the  slightest  pressure  from  the  inside  of  the  flue,  and  thus  prevent 
any  reverse  current,  or  down  draught,  carrying  smoke  and  soot  into  the 
apartment. 

4.  By  discharging  a  jet  of  steam,  or  a  portion  of  warm  air  from  the 
furnace,  or  other  warming  apparatus,  directly  into  the  ventilating  flue. 

Any  application  of  heat  by  which  the  temperature  of  the  air  in  the 
ventilating  flue  can  be  raised  above  the  temperature  of  the  apartment 
to  be  ventilated,  will  cause  a  flow  of  air  from  the  apartment  to  sustain 
the  combustion,  (if  there  is  a  fire  in  the  flue.)  and  to  supply  the  partial 
vacuum  in  the  flue,  which  is  caused  by  the  rarefaction  of  the  air  in  the 
same. 

In  all  school  buildings,  when  several  apartments  are  to  be  ventilated, 
the  most  effectual,  and,  all  things  considered,  the  most  economical  mode 
of  securing  a  motive  power,  is  to  construct  an  upright  brick  shaft  or  flue, 
and  in  that  to  build  a  fire,  or  carry  up  the  smoke-pipe  of  the  stove,  fur- 
nace, or  other  warming  apparatus  ;  and  then  to  discharge  the  ventila- 
ting flues  from  the  top  or  bottom  of  each  apartment,  into  this  upright 
shaft  The  fire-draught  will  create  a  partial  vacuum  in  this  shaft,  to  fill 
which,  a  draught  will  be  established  upon  every  room  with  which  it  is 
connected  by  lateral  flues.  Whenever  a  shaft  of  this  kind  is  resorted 
to,  the  flues  for  ventilation  may  be  lateral,  and  the  openings  into  them 
may  be  inserted  near  the  floor. 

13.  With  a  flue  properly  constructed,  so  as  to  facilitate  the  spontane- 
ous upward  movement  of  the  warm  air  within  it,  and  so  placed  that  the 
air  is  not  exposed  to  the  chilling  influence  of  external  cold,  a  turncap, 
constructed  after  the  plan  of  Emerson's  Ejector,  or  Mott's  Exhausting 

20 


306 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


Cowl,  will  assist  the  ventilation,  and  especially  when  there  are  any  cur- 
rents in  the  atmosphere.  But  such  caps  are  not  sufficient  to  overcome 
any  considerable  defects  in  the  construction  of  the  ventilating  flues,  even 
when  there  is  much  wind. 

14.  The  warming  and  ventilation  of  a  school-room  will  be  facilitated 
by  applying  a  double  sash  to  all  windows  having  a  northern  and  eastern 
exposure,  or  on  the  sides  of  the  prevailing  winds  in  winter. 

15.  In  every  furnace  and  on  every  stove,  a  capacious  vessel,  well  sup- 
plied with  fresh  water  and  protected  from  the  dust,  should  be  placed. 

16.  Every  school-room  should  be  furnished  with  two  thermometers, 
placed  on  opposite  sides  in  the  room,  and  the  temperature  in  the  winter 
should  not  be  allowed  to  attain  beyond  68°  Fahrenheit  at  a  level  of  four 
feet  from  the  floor,  or  70°  at  the  height  of  six  feet. 

17.  The  necessity  for  ventilation  in  an  occupied  apartment  is  not  ob- 
viated by  merely  reducing  the  atmosphere  to  a  low  temperature. 

18.  No  apparatus,   however  skillfully  constructed  or  judiciously  lo- 
cated, can  dispense  with  the  careful  oversight  of  a  thoughtful  teacher. 

Although  much  has  been  said  and  printed  on  the  principles  arid  modes 
of  ventilation,  there  is  much  to  be  done  by  educators,  committees,  and 
teachers,  to  enlighten  and  liberalize  the  public  mind  and  action  on  this 
important  subject — not  only  in  reference  to  school-rooms,  but  to  halls  of 
justice  and  legislation,  to  churches,  lecture  rooms,  and  workshops, — to  all 
places  where  human  beings  congregate  in  large  numbers,  for  business 
or  pleasure. 

Mr.  D.  Leach,  one  of  the  agents  employed  by  the  Board  of  Education 
in  Massachusetts,  to  visit  schools  and  confer  with  committees  in  regard 
to  the  construction  of  school-houses,  remarks  in  1853 : 

In  a  large  majority  of  school -houses,  there  are  no  means  of  ventilating  but  by 
opening  the  windows  and  doors.  And  where  attempts  have  been  made,  it  has 
been  but  imperfectly  accomplished.  The  ventilating  tubes  have  almost  invariably 
been  too  small.  As  the  result  of  my  investigations,  I  would  make  the  following 
suggestions.  To  ventilate  a  room  properly  containing  fifty  persons,  the  ventilat- 
ing tube  should  not  be  less  than  fifteen  square  inches  inside.  The  tube  should  be 
made  of  very  thin  bqards,  well  seasoned,  with  a  smooth  inside  surface,  and  it 
should  be  perfectly  tight.  It  should  be  wholly  within  the  room,  and  opposite  to 
the  register  or  stove.  There  should  be  an  opening  at  the  top  and  bottom.  The 
ventilating  tabes  should  be  connected  in  the  attic,  and  conducted  through  the 
roof,  and  furnished  with  a  suitable  cap.  Another  method,  which  is  far  prefera- 
ble, is  as  follows :  The  smoke  pipes  may  be  conducted  into  a  cast  iron  pipe  rest- 
ing on  soap-stone  in  the  attic  floor,  instead  of  a  chimney  built  from  the  bottom  of 
the  cellar.  This  cast  iron  pipe  may  be  surrounded  by  a  brick  chimney,  into  which 
the  ventilating  tqbe.s  should  lead.  The  space  in  the  chimney  should  be  equal  to 
the  spaces  in  the  tubes,  after  making  suitable  allowance  for  the  pipe,  and  the  in- 
crease of  friction.  By  this  arrangement,  the  air  in  the  tubes  will  be  rarefied,  and 
a  rapid  current  of  air  produced.  All  attempts  to  ventilate  rooms  with  tubes  in 
the  wall,  or  of  less  size  than  fourteen  or  fifteen  square  inches  for  fifty  persons,  have, 
so  far  as  I  have  examined,  failed.  No  artificial  means  will  secure  good  ventilation 
when  the  temperature  of  the  room  and  that  of  the  outer  air  are  nearly  the  same, 
without  the  application  of  heat  to  the  air  in  the  tubes.  Unless  the  air  is  heated 
before  being  admitted  into  the  room,  it  should  be  let  in  at  the  top,  and  not  at  the 
bottom,  and  always  through  a  large  number  of  small  apertures.  The  quantity  of 
pure  air  admitted  must  always  be  equal  to  that  which  is  to  be  forced  out. 


BOSTON  MODE  OF  VENTILATION.  397 


METHODS  OF  VENTILATION  AND  WARMING,  RECENTLY  INTRODUCED 
INTO  THE  SCHOOL-HOUSES  OF  BOSTON. 

In  February,  1846,  the  School  Committee  of  Boston  appointed 
Dr.  Henry  G.  Clark,  E.  G.  Loring,  Esq.,  and  Rev.  Charles  Brooks, 
a  Committee  "to  consider  the  subject  of  ventilation  of  the  school- 
houses  under  the  care  of  this  Board,  and  to  report  at  a  future  meeting 
some  method  of  remedying  the  very  defective  manner  in  which  it 
is  now  accomplished."  The  Committee  were  further  "  authorized 
to  ventilate  any  three  school-houses,  in  such  manner  as  they  may 
deem  expedient."  Under  these  instructions,  the  Committee  visited, 
and  carefully  examined  all  the  school-houses  under  the  care  of  the 
Board,  and  instituted  a  variety  of  experiments,  for  the  purpose  of 
determining  on  the  best  method  of  ventilation,  to  be  generally  intro- 
duced. In  December,  1846,  this  Committee  made  a  Report,  for  a 
copy  of  which  we  are  indebted  to  the  author,  Dr.  Clark,  by  whose 
agency  and  ingenuity  mainly,  these  great  improvements,  both  in  ven- 
tilation and  warming,  hereafter  detailed,  have  been  introduced  into 
the  Public  Schools  of  Boston.  We  are  also  indebted  to  Dr.  Clark 
for  the  use  of  the  cuts  by  which  this  Report,  and  a  subsequent  Re- 
port, are  illustrated.  We  shall  extract  largely  from  these  valuable 
documents,  with  the  permission  of  the  author.  It  will  be  seen  that 
the  views  here  recommended  are  substantially  the  same  with  those 
presented  under  the  head  of  Ventilation,  in  this  Treatise. 

"  Your  Committee  desire  to  call  the  attention  of  this  Board,  chiefly  to  the  con- 
sideration of  such  general  and  well  established  Physiological  and  Philosophical 
principles,  as  have  a  distinct  and  intimate  relation  to  the  subject  of  this  Re- 
port, and  may  be  useful  in  its  elucidation. 

In  doing  this,  there  are  two  things  of  which  they  hope  to  satisfy  the  Board. 

First.  The  necessity  of  a  system  of  ventilation,  which  shall  furnish,  for  all 
the  pupils  in  the  Pubfic  Schools  of  Boston,  at  all  times,  an  abundant  supply 
of  an  atmosphere  entirely  adapted,  in  its  purity  and  temperature,  to  the  pur- 
poses of  respiration. 

Secondly.  The  entire  failure  of  the  measures  heretofore  adopted  to  accom- 
plish this  desirable  end. 

The  function  of  Respiration,  is  that  process,  by  whose  agency  and  constant 
operation,  atmospheric  air  is  admitted  to  the  internal  surface  of  the  lungs,  and 
there  brought  into  close  contact  with  the  blood,  for  the  purpose  of  effecting 
certain  changes  in  it,  which  are  essential  to  the  continuance  of  life,  and  to 
maintain  the  integrity  of  the  bodily  organs.  During  this  process,  the  atmos- 
phere is  constantly  losing  its  oxygen,  which  is  carried  into  the  circulation, 
while,  at  the  same  time,  it  is  becoming  overcharged  with  the  carbonic  acid 
gas,  which  is  continually  thrown  off  from  the  lungs  by  respiration.  This  effete 
and  deadly  poison  spreads  itself  rapidly  into  all  parts  of  the  room. 

'  M.  Lassaigne  has  shown,  by  a  series  of  investigations,  that,  contrary  to  a 
common  opinion,  the  air  in  a  room  which  has  served  for  respiration  without 
being  renewed,  contains  carbonic  acid  alike  in  every  part,  above  as  well  as  be- 
low; the  difference  in  proportion  is  but  slight;  and,  where  appreciable,  there 
is  some  reason  to  believe  that  the  carbonic  acid  is  in  greater  quantity  in  the 
upper  parts  of  a  room.  These  experiments  establish  the  very  important  fact,  that 
all  the  air  of  a  room  must  be  changed,  in  order  to  restore  its  purity.'* 

Dr.  Wyman  makes  the  following  remarks  on  this  point:  'Although  carbonic 

acid  is  a  much  heavier  gas  than  atmospheric  air,  it  does  not,  from  this  cause. 

fall  to  the  floor,  but  is  equally  diffused  through  the  room.     If  the  gas  is  formed 

on  the  floor  without  change  of  temperature,  this  diffusion  may  not  take  place 

'Silliman's  Journal  for  September,  1846. 


308  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

rapidly.  In  the  celebrated  Grotto  del  Cane,  carbonic  acid  escapes  from  the  floor, 
and  rises  to  a  certain  height,  which  is  pretty  well  defined  to  the  sight  on  the 
•walls ;  below  this  line,  a  dog  is  destroyed,  as  if  in  water ;  above  it,  he  is  not 
affected.  An  analysis  of  the  air  above  and  below  a  brazier  has  been  made, 
and  it  was  found  equally  contaminated,— the  former  containing  4  65  per  cent., 
and  the  latter  4.5  pei  cent,  of  carbonic  acid. 

'  From  the  experiments  of  M.  Devergie,  who  has  devoted  much  attention 
to  the  poisonous  effects  of  these  gasses,  it  appears,  that  the  heat  disengaged 
from  the  combustion  of  charcoal,  produces  an  equable  mixture  at  all  eleva- 
tions in  the  apartment ;  and  this  state  of  things  continues  as  long  as  the  room 
remains  warm ;  but  after  twelve  hours  or  more,  the  carbonic  acid  sinks,  and 
while  that  near  the  ceiling  contains  only  a  seventy-eighth,  that  near  the  floor 
contains  nearly  four  times  as  much,  or  a  nineteenth.'  (See  Prac.  Trea.  p.  77.) 

If  further  proof  be  needed,  to  establish  this  position,  we  have  other  testimony. 
During  respiration,  a  considerable  quantity  of  vapor  is  discharged  from  the 
lungs.  With  regard  to  this,  Mr.  Tredgold  says :  '  if  the  air  did  not  contain 
this  mixture  of  vapor,  it  would  not  rise  when  expelled ;  and  we  haVe  to  ad- 
mire one  of  those  simple  and  beautiful  arrangements,  by  which  our  all-wise 
Creator  has  provided  against  the  repeated  inhalation  of  the  same  air ;  for  a 
mixture  of  azote,  carbonic  acid  gas,  and  vapor,  at  the  temperature  it  is  eject- 
ed, is  much  lighter  than  common  air  even  at  the  same  temperature.  Hence,  it 
rises  with  such  velocity,  that  it  is  entirely  removed  from  us  before  it  becomes 
diffused  in  the  atmosphere.  But  as  all  gaseous  bodies  and  vapors  intimately 
mix  when  suffered  to  remain  in  contact,  we  see  how  important  it  is  that  venti- 
lation should  be  continual ;  that  the  noxious  gasses  should  be  expelled  as  soon 
as  generated ;  and  that  the  ventilation  should  be  from  the  upper  part  of  a 
room.'  (See  Tredgold  on  Warming,  tfc.,p.  70. 

If,  to  the  foul  effluvia  ejected  from  the  lungs,  and  accumulating  in  an  apart- 
ment as  badly  ventilated  as  one  of  our  school-rooms,  be  added  the  fouler 
matter  thrown  into  the  air  from  the  insensible  perspiration  of  so  many  individuals, 
many  of  whom  are  of  uncleanly  habits  in  person  and  apparel,  it  is  apparent,  that, 
in  a  very  limited  period  of  time,  the  air,  in  a  perfectly  close  room,  would  become 
so  entirely  unfit  for  respiration,  that,  to  all  who  were  exposed  to  its  influence, 
submersion  in  water  could  not  be  more  certainly  fatal. 

The  terrible  effects  of  continued  exposure  to  carbonic  acid  gas  in  a  concen- 
trated form,  have  been  graphically  described  by  Howard,  in  his  account  of  the 
Black  Hole  of  Calcutta.  Of  one  hundred  and  forty-six  persons,  shut  up  in 
this  place  for  only  ten  hours,  without  any  other  means  of  ventilation  than  one 
small  opening,  but  twenty-six  were  found  alive,  when  it  came  to  be  opened; 
and  most  of  these  suffered  afterward  from  malignant  fevers. 

The  fainting  of  feeble  persons  in  crowded  assemblies,  and  the  asphyxia,  so 
often  produced  in  those  who  descend  into  deep  wells  without  suitable  precau- 
tion, are  familiar  examples  of  the  same  noxious  effects  of  this  poison. 

In  has  been  usually  estimated,  that  every  individual,  by  respiration,  and  the 
various  exhalations  from  the  body,  consumes  or  renders  unfit  for  use,  at  least 
from  four  to  five  cubic  feet  of  air  per  minute.  This  is  probably  a  low  esti- 
mate ;  but  authors  of  good  repute  differ  considerably  on  this  point.  Mr.  Tred- 
gold's  remarks,  in  this  connection,  are  interesting  and  pertinent.  '  The  Phys- 
iological Chemists,'  says  he,  'have  placed  in  our  hands  a  more  accurate 
means  of  measuring  the  deterioration  of  air  in  dwelling  rooms,  than  by  the 
best  eudiometer ;  for  they  have  shown,  by  repeated  experiments  on  respira 
tion,  that  a  man  consumes  about  thirty-two  cubic  inches  of  oxygen  in  a  minute, 
which  is  replaced  by  an  equal  bulk  of  carbonic  acid  from  the  lungs.  Now, 
the  quantity  of  oxygen  in  atmospheric  air  is  about  one  fifth  ;  hence  it  will  be 
found,  that  the  quantity  rendered  unfit  for  supporting  either  combustion  or  ani- 
mal life,  by  one  man,  in  one  minute,  is  nearly  one  hundred  and  sixty  cubic 
inches,  by  respiration  only.  But  a  man  makes  twenty  respirations  in  a  minute, 
and  draws  in  and  expels  forty  inches  of  air  at  each  respiration ;  consequently, 
the  total  quantity  contaminated  in  one  minute,  by  passing  through  the  lungs,  is 
eight  hundred  cubic  inches.'*  The  other  sources  of  impurity,  which  should 
be  considered,  will  increase  the  estimate  to  the  amount  above  stated.  The 
amount  of  vapor  discharged  from  the  lungs,  and  thus  added  to  the  impurities 
of  the  air,  is  said  to  exceed  six  grains  per  minute.  It  has  also  been  shown 
'Tredgold  on  Warming,  &c.,  p.  69 


BOSTON  MODE  OF  VENTILATION.  309 

Aat  air,  which  has  been  some  time  in  contact  with  the  skin,  becomes  almost 
entirely  converted  into  carbonic  acid. 

In  estimating  the  amount  of  fresh  air  to  be  supplied,  we  ought  not  merely  to 
look  at  what  the  system  will  tolerate,  but  that  amount  which  will  sustain  the 
highest  state  of  health  for  the  longest  time.  Dr.  Reid  recommends  at  least  ten 
cubic  feet  per  minute,  as  a  suitable  average  supply  for  each  individual ;  and 
states  that  his  estimate  is  the  result  of  an  '  extreme  variety  of  experiments, 
made  on  hundreds  of  different  constitutions,  supplied  one  by  one  with  given 
amounts  of  air,  and  also  in  numerous  assemblies  and  meetings,  where  there 
were  means  for  estimating  the  quantity  of  air  with  which  they  were  pro- 
vided.' (Illustrations  of  Ventilation,  p.  17(3.) 

These  calculations  refer  to  adults ;  but  the  greater  delicacy  of  the  organiza- 
tion of  children,  and  their  feebler  ability  to  resist  the  action  of  deleterious 
agents,  together  with  their  greater  rapidity  of  respiration,  demand  for  them  at 
least  an  equal  supply.  Proceeding  upon  this  baps,  and  multiplying  the  amount 
required  per  minute,  by  the  minutes  of  a  school  session  of  three  hours,  we 
have  eighteen  hundred  cubic  feet  for  each  pupil,  and  for  two  hundred  and  fifty 
pupils— the  average  maximum  attendance  in  one  of  our  large  school-rooms,— 
450,000  cubic  feet,  as  the  requisite  quantity  for  each  half-day.  The  rooms 
contain  about  2-2,500  cubic  feet  only:  so  that  a  volume  of  air,  equal  to  the 
whole  cubic  contents  of  each  room,  should  be  supplied  and  removed,  in  some 
way,  ten  times  every  three  hours,  in  order  to  sustain  the  atmosphere  in  them  at 
a  point  which  is  perfectly  wholesome  and  salubrious.  For  such  a  purpose, 
the  present  means  are  so  entirely  inadequate,  that  it  was  found  that  the  air  of  a 
room  became  tainted  in  ten  or  fifteen  minutes.  In  ordinary  cases,  four  per 
cent,  of  the  air  expelled  from  the  lungs  is  carbonic  acid.  The  presence  of  five 
or  six  per  cent,  will  extinguish  a  lamp,  and  with  difficulty  support  life.  It  is 
therefore  certain,  that  the  air  would  become  deprived  of  all  its  best  properties 
in  one  school  session. 

Le  Blanc,— who  examined  many  public  and  private  buildings,  in  France 
and  elsewhere, — speaking  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  where  sixty-four  cubic 
feet  of  fresh  air  per  minute,  were  allowed  to  each  individual,  states,  that  oi 
10,000  parts  escaping  by  ihe  ventilator,  twenty-five  were  carbonic  acid ;  while 
the  quantity  of  this  gas  ordinarily  present  in  the  atmosphere,  is  but  y^inr- 
Dr.  Reid  states,  that  he  never  gave  less  than  thirty  cubic  feet  of  air  a  minute, 
to  each  member  of  the  House  of  Commons,  when  the  room  was  crowded;  and 
once  he  introduced,  for  weeks  successively,  sixty  cubic  feet  a  minute,  to  each 
member. 

The  very  earliest  impressions  received  by  your  Committee,  in  their  visits  to 
the  school-houses,  satisfied  them  of  their  la'mentable  condition  in  regard  to 
ventilation.  In  some  of  them,  they  found  the  air  so  bad,  that  it  could  be  per- 
ceived before  reaching  the  school-rooms,  and  in  the  open  entries ;  and  the  chil- 
dren, as  they  passed  up  and  down  the  stairs,  had  their  clothes  and  hair  percep- 
tibly impregnated  with  the  fffitid  poison.  And  these  circumstances  existed  in 
houses,  where  the  open  windows  testified,  upon  our  entrance,  that  the  Masters 
had  endeavored  to  improve  the  atmosphere  by  all  the  means  placed  at  their 
disposal.  To  this  custom, — that  of  opening  u-indou-s  in  school  hours, — the  In- 
structors are  compelled  to  resort,  for  relief;  and  this  expedient,  certainly,  is  the 
lesser  of  two  very  great  evils.  Your  Committee  found  in  their  visits  to  the 
school-houses,  during  the  severest  days  of  last  winter,  that  no  school-room 
had  less  than  three,  and  that  more  than  half  of  them  had  at  least  seven  windows 
open  for  the  admission  of  pure  air.  Yet  this  dangerous  and  injurious  practice 
only  mitigates  the  evils  of  bad  air,  by  creating  others.  It  produces  colds  and 
inflammatory  complaints,  and  the  air  still  remains  impure,  offensive,  and 
highly  deleterious  ;  sufficiently  so,  to  affect  the  delicate  organization  of  child- 
hood, to  blight  its  elasticity,  and  destroy  that  healthful  physical  action,  on 
which  depends  the  vigor  of  maturer  years. 

We  have  already  referred  to  some  of  the  more  violent  and  sudden  effects  of  ex- 
posure to  air  highly  charged  with  these  noxious  gasses.  There  are  others,  which 
are  more  remote,  and,  to  a  superficial  observer,  less  noticeable.  But  they  are 
not,  therefore,  of  less  importance.  The  grave  consequences  of  a  long-contin. 
ued  exposure  to  an  atmosphere  but  a  little  below  the  standard  of  natura 
purity,  although  not  immediately  incompatible  with  life,  can  hardl  be  over 


310 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


stated.  These  effects  are  often  so  insidious  in  their  approach,  as  hardly  to  at- 
tract notice ;  they  are  therefore  the  more  necessary  to  be  provided  against  in 
advance. 

Children,  confined  in  the  atmosphere  of  these  schools,  soon  lose  the  ruduy 
and  cheerful  complexions  of  perfect  health  which  belong  to  youth,  and  acquire 
the  sallow  and  depressed  countenances  which  might  reasonably  be  expected  in 
over-worked  factory  operatives,  or  the  tenants  of  apartments  unvisited  by  the 
sun  or  air.  We  noticed  in  many  faces,  also,  particularly  towards  the  close  of 
a  school  session,  a  feverish  flush,  so  bright  that  it  might  easily  deceive  an  in- 
experienced eye,  and  be  mistaken  for  a  healthy  bloom.  Alas  !  it  was  only  a 
transient  and  ineffectual  effort  of  nature  to  produce,  by  overaction,  those  salu- 
tary changes  which  she  really  wanted  the  power  to  accomplish. 

The  condition  of  the  pupils,  depressed  as  they  are  by  these  influences,  is 
constantly  demanding  increased  exertions  from  their  Instructors,  while  the  re- 
quirements of  the  age  placecthe  standard  of  education  at  an  elevation  suffi- 
ciently difficult  of  access  under  the  most  favorable  circumstances. 

Your  committee  are  satisfied,  therefore,  that  the  present  state  of  the  school- 
houses  daily  impairs  the  health  of  the  pupils  and  Instructors,  and  the  efficiency 
of  the  schools  for  the  purposes  of  instruction.  That  its  continuance  will  pro- 
duce, not  only  immediate  discomfort  and  disease,  but,  by  its  effect  on  the  con- 
stitutions of  the  children,  who  must  pass  in  them  a  large  portion  of  those 
years  most  susceptible  to  physical  injury,  will  directly  and  certainly  reduce 
the  amount  of  constitutional  vigor  hereafter  to  be  possessed  by  that  large  mass 
of  our  population,  which  now  and  hereafter  is  to  receive  its  education  in  these 
schools. 

Although  the  atmosphere  in  the  different  school-houses  varied  very  much  in 
particular  cases,  either  owing  to  the  time  of  the  visits,  o-r  from  the  amount  of 
attention  and  intelligence  of  the  Masters,  yet  in  none  of  them  was  it  at  all  sat- 
isfactory ;  not  one  of  them  was  furnished  with  any  useful  or  systematic  means 
of  ventilation.  Every  one,  in  order  to  be  kept  in  a  tolerably  comfortable  con- 
dition in  this  respect,  required  the  frequent  and  laborious  attention  of  the  In- 
structors, and  often  to  a  degree  which  must  have  seriously  interfered  with  their 
legitimate  duties. 

All  of  the  rooms  are  provided  with  registers,  in  or  near  the  ceiling,  ostensi- 
bly for  the  purpose  of  discharging  the  foul  air,  but  which  your  Committee  be- 
lieve to  be  almost  entirely  useless.  The  openings  through  the  roof  into  the 
open  air,  where  they  exist,  are  so  small,  as  to  be  quite  inadequate  to  relieve  the 
attics ;  so  that  the  bad  air  must  accumulate  there,  and,  after  becoming  condensed 
be  gradually  forced  back  again,  to  be  breathed  over  by  the  same  lungs 
which  have  already  rejected  it.  The  condition  of  the  apartments,  after  under- 
going a  repetition  of  such  a  process,  for  any  length  of  time,  can  easily  be 
imagined." 

A  reference  to  the  subjoined  diagram  will  explain  at  once  the  present  state 
of  the  Ventilation  of  the  School-Houses. 


a.  Heated  air  from  furnace. 

b.  Hot    air    escaping    through 
open  window. 

c.  Cold    air    entering    through 
open  window. 


BOSTON  MODE  OF  VENTILATION.  311 

It  may  be  a  matter  of  surprise,  to  some,  perhaps,  that  the  subject  of  ventila- 
ting our  school-rooms  has  not  long  ago  received  the  consideration  necessary 
to  remedy,  or  even  to  have  prevented  altogether,  the  evils  of  which  we  at  pres- 
ent complain.  But  these  evils  have  not  always  existed.  It  should  be  recol- 
lected, that  the  stoves  and  furnaces  now  in  common  use,  are  of  comparatively 
modern  date;  and  moreover,  that  the  ample  fireplaces,  which  they  have  dis- 
placed, always  proved  perfectly  efficient  ventilators,  although,  it  is  true,  some- 
what at  the  expense  of  comlbrt  and  fuel.  But  in  closing  the  fireplaces,  and  sub- 
stituting more  economical  metnods  of  warming,  evils  of  far  greater  magnitude 
have  been  entailed  upon  us. 

It.is  evident,  that,  in  order  to  carry  into  operation  any  complete  system  of 
ventilation,  there  must  be  connected  with  it  some  apparatus  to  regulate  the 
temperature  o^  the  air  to  be  admitted,  as  well  as  to  ensure  its  ample  supply. 
Your  committee  have  accordingly  examined,  with  much  care,  this  part  of  the 
subject.  A  majority  of  the  buildings  are  furnished  with  'hot-air  furnaces,' 
situated  in  the  cellars  ;  the  remainder  with  stoves,  placed  in  the  school-rooms 
themselves.  Most  of  the  furnaces  possess  great  heating  powers, — indeed  much 
greater  than  is  necessary,  if  the  heat  generated  by  them  were  properly  econo- 
mized, or  could  be  made  available  ;— but,  as  now  constructed,  they  are  almost 
worse  than  useless,  consuming  large  quantities  of  fuel,  and,  at  the  same  time,  so 
overheating  the  air  which  passes  through  them,  as  to  deprive  it  of  some  of  its 
best  qualities,  and  render  it  unsuitable  for  respiration.  It  is  difficult  to  define, 
with  precision,  and  by  analysis,  the  changes  which  take  place  in  air  subjected 
to  the  action  of  metallic  surfaces,  at  a  high  temperature.  The  unpleasant 
dryness  of  the  air  can  be  detected,  very  readily,  by  the  senses ;  and  the  head- 
ache, and  other  unpleasant  sensations,  experienced  by  those  who  breathe  such 
an  atmosphere,  would  seem  to  prove  a  deficiency  of  oxygen  and  electricity. 
The  rapid  oxydation  and  destruction  of  the  ironwork  of  the  furnaces  them- 
selves, also  tends  to  confirm  this  supposition. 

It  has  been  ascertained,  by  repeated  examinations,  that  the  temperature  of 
the  air,  when  it  arrives  at  the  rooms,  is  often  as  high  as  500°  and  600°  Fahren- 
heit. Of  course,  it  is  entirely  impossible  to  diffuse  air,  thus  heated,  in  the 
parts  of  the  room  occupied  by  the  pupils.  Much  of  it  passes  rapidly  out  of  the 
windows,  which  may  be  open ;  the  rest  to  the  ceiling,  where  it  remains  until 
partially  cooled,  gradually  finding  its  way  down  by  the  walls  and  closed  win- 
dows, to  the  lower  parts  of  the  room.  The  consequences  are,  that,  while 
much  more  caloric  is  sent  into  the  apartment  than  is  requisite,  many  of  the 
pupils  are  compelled  to  remain  in  an  atmosphere  which  is  at  once  cold  and 
stagnant. 

The  source  of  the  cold  air  for  supplying  the  furnaces,  is  not  always  free 
from  objection  ;  some  being  drawn  from  the  neighborhood  of  drains,  cesspools, 
&c.  This  is  a  radical  defect,  as  it  must  inevitably  affect  the  whole  air  of  the 
building.  The  boxes,  which  admit  the  cold  air  to  the  furnaces,  are  much  too 
contracted ;  some  of  them  being  only  a  few  inches  square,  when  their  capacity 
ought  to  be  nearly  as  many  feet.  The  air  enters  the  '  cold-air  '  chamber  of 
the  furnace,  at  its  top,  whence  it  is  intended  to  be  carried  down  between  thin 
brick  walls,  (which  should  be  cold,  but  which  are  often  heated  to  300°  Fahren- 
heit,) to  the  lower  part  of  the  furnace,  and  thence  into  the  '  hot-air '  chambers, 
and  so  on  to  the  rooms  above.  It  is  obvious  that  the  'hot-air'  chamber 
must  be  heated  to  a  temperature  far  beyond  that  of  the  '  cold-air'  chamber,  in 
order  to  compel  the  air,  against  its  own  natural  tendencies,  to  pass  into  it  with 
any  velocity  or  volume,  and  the  very  attempt  to  accomplish  this,  almost  de- 
feats itself;  as,  by  driving  the  fire  for  this  purpose,  the  '  cold-air '  chamber  be- 
comes still  hotter,  so  that  at  last  the  contest  is  decided  only  by  the  greater  cal- 
orific capabilities  which  the  iron  plates  possess  over  the  brick  wall.  At  any 
rate,  the  temperature  of  the  iron  is  frequently  raised  to  a  red  and  even  a 
white  heat,  by  running  the  furnaces  in  the  ordinary  way.  This  soon  destroys 
them,  and  they  require  consequently  to  be  frequently  renewed.  In  addition  to 
all  this  waste  of  fuel  and  material,  the  folly  of  attempting,  in  any  way,  to 
warm  school-rooms  whose  windows  are  freely  opened  to  the  admission  of  an 
atmosphere,  at  the  low  temperature  of  our  winter  climate,  may  well  claim  a 
massing  notice. 


312 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


The  following  diagrams  will  exhibit  the  mode  in  which  the  two  houses  al- 
ready referred  to,  are  now  ventilated. 

PLAN  OF  THE  VENTILATION  OF  THE  ELIOT  SCHOOL-HOUSE. 


a.  a.    Cold  air  channels  to 
furnaces. 

b.  b.    Heated  air. 

The  arrows  show  the  cur- 
rents of  air  from  the  furnaces 
to  the  outlet  at  the  roof. 

c. .  Gas  burner. 


\ 


This  house  was  entirely  without  any  external  opening  throi 
The  other  arrangements  in  it  presented  nothing  peculiar.     The  ' 


through  the  roof, 
'he  '  exits  and  the 

entrances  '  were  all  as  deficient  in  capacity  as  usual.  The  first  care  was  to 
perforate  the  roof.  This  was  accordingly  done,  and  an  opening  of  sufficient 
size  made  to  carry  a  turn-cap  of  two  and  a  half  feet  in  diameter  in  its  smallest 
part.  The  cold-air  shaft,  with  an  area  of  only  one  hundred  and  forty  square 
inches,  was  enlarged  so  as  to  measure  six  hundred,  or  about  four  times  its  for- 
mer size.  The  necessary  repairing  of  one  furnace,  gave  us  an  opportunity  to 
enlarge  its  air-chamber  very  considerably.  Water,  for  evaporation,  was  placed 
within  a  chamber  of  the  furnace.  The  registers  in  the  rooms  opening  into  the 
attic,  being  below  the  ceiling,  were  raised  to  the  highest  point,  and  increased 
in  size. 

Although  we  think  the  want  of  connection  of  the  cowl  at  the  roof  with  the 
registers  from  the  rooms  by  closed  tubes,  a  decided  disadvantage,  we  were  sat- 
isfied, on  the  whole,  with  the  results ;  as  the  alterations  gave  great  relief. 
These  changes  were  made  during  the  month  of  February,  1846,  and  the  only 
inconvenience  suffered  during  the  winter,  was  the  occasional  rise  of  the 
temperature  to  five  or  ten  degrees  beyond  the  desired  point.  The  atmosphere 
has  lost  its  bad  odor  almost  entirely,"  and  is  of  course  much  more  agreeable. 
A  gas  burner  has  lately  been  placed  in  the  throat  of  the  ventilator,  for  use 
when  extra  power  is  needed. 


PLAN  OP  THE  VENTILATION  OF  THE  ENDICOTT  SCHOOL-HOUSE. 


This  house,  as  well  as  the  preceding,  was  heated  bv  furnaces  in  the  cellar, 
one  for  each  room.  Its  ventilating  flues  were  arranged  in  a  better  manner  than 
usual,  opening  into  little  separate  chimneys  which  pierced  the  roof  near  the 
copings.  But  they  had  proved  to  be  insufficient,  both  on  account  of  their  size 
and  situation.  They  were  also  affected  sensibly  by  down-gusts,  which  com- 
pletely reversed  their  action  in  certain  states  of  the  atmosphere  and  wind. 


BOSTON  MODE  OF  VENTILATION. 


313 


a.  a.    Currents    of  heated  air 
passing  to  the  ventilating  flues. 

b.  b.    Cold  air  channels. 

c.  c.    Cold  air  valves  opening 
upon  the  hot-air  currents. 

F.  F.    Furnaces. 
&    Stove  in  ventilator  in  the 
attic. 


After  enlarging  the  cold-air  shaft  to  a  proper  size,  it  was  thought  best,  (as  thf 
hot-air  pipe  passed  through  the  brick  wall,  so  that  it  could  not  easily  be  altered,) 
to  make  an  opening  through  the  outer  wall  directly  behind  the  register  which 
delivered  the  hot-air  into  the  room.  An  aperture  of  sixteen  inches  square, 
commanded  by  a  revolving  damper,  was  therefore  cut.  It  has  been  found  to 
answer  exceedingly  well;  as  we  now  get  a  much  larger  volume,  of  more  tem- 
perate and  purer  air. 

For  the  delivery  of  the  bad  air,  the  following  arrangements  were  adopted. 
Large  wrooden  boxes,  or  air-shafts,  were  carried  from  the  floor  of  each  story 
into  the  attic,  where  they  communicate,  by  closed  metal  pipes  of  the  same  size, 
with  a  tin  cylinder,  three  feet  in  diameter,  which  is  continued  to  the  roof,  ter- 
minating there  in  a  large  cowl.  There  are  openings,  at  the  top  and  bottom  of 
each  room,  into  the  ventilating  shafts,  which  can  be  used  separately,  or 
together,  as  the  state  of  the  atmosphere  requires. 

An  air-tight  coal  stove,  placed  within  the  drum,  in  the  attic,  completes  the 
apparatus.  This  has  been  only  recently  constructed ;  but  from  results  already 
produced,  there  is  no  doubt  of  its  entire  ability  to  accomplish  all  that  is 
desirable. 

The  same  general  statements  which  have  been  made  with  regard  to  the 
Grammar  School-houses,  will  apply  to  the  Primary  School-houses.  They  are 
undoubtedly  in  as  bad  a  condition, "to  say  the  least;  and  from  their  smaller  ca- 
pacities in  proportion  to  the  number  of  pupils  which  they  contain,  require 
particular  attention. 

For  ventilation  of  these,  and  the  Recitation  rooms,  which  resemble  them  in 
structure  and  size,  your  Committee  recommend  the  use  of  the  double  fireplace* 
or  the  Ventilating  Stove,  which  will  be  hereafter  described.  If  the  latter  be 
used,  ventilating  flues,  opening  at  the  ceiling,  must  be  carried  out  of  the  roof. 

It  only  remains  for  your  Committee  to  describe,  more  particularly,  the  system 
of  ventilation  which  they  consider  to  be,  in  its  general  features,  best  adapted 
for  the  school-houses  under  the  care  of  the  Board.  Much  of  it  has  al- 
ready been  anticipated  in  other  parts  of  this  Report;  and  the  following 
plan  will  show,  at  a  glance,  better  than  any  description  can  do,  its  particular 
features. 


See  page  38  of  this  Essay  for  a  diagram  and  description. 


314 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


DIAGRAM   SHOWING  THE  BEST  GENERAL  PLAN  FOR  WARMING  AND  VENTILATING 
THE  GRAMMAR  SCHOOL-HOUSES. 


a.  a.    Cold-air  channel,  three  feet  in  diameter,  opening  underneath  tne 
Furnace. 

F.    Furnace,  three  feet  in  diameter  in  a  brick  chamber  ten  feet  square. 
The  walls  twelve  inches  thick. 

d.  Smoke  flue,  surmounted  with  Mr.  Tredgold's  chimney  top. 

b.  b.  b.  b.   Currents  of  warmed  air,  passing  from  the  furnace,  through  a  main 
flue  of  four  feet  in  diameter,  which  supplies  two  branch  flues.    From  these  the 
air  is  diffused  into  all  parts  of  the  room,  by  means  of  the  tablets  which  are 
placed  over  the  mouths  of  the  registers. 

e.  The  ventilating  shaft,  two  and  a  half  feet  in  diameter,  into  which  the 
foal  gasses  are  collected,  and  from  which  they  are  finally  discharged  into  the 
open  air. 

c.  An  Argand  Lamp,  to  be  lighted  from  the  attic. 

r.  r.  r.    Registers,  by  means  of  which  the  whole  circulation  is  controlled. 
The  Committee  recommend  attention  to  the  following  general  rules  for  Ven- 
tilation and  Warming. 

1.  The  air  must  be  taken  from  a  pure  source.     The  higher  parts  of  the 
building  are  the  best,  as  thereby  all  impurities,  which  often  contaminate  air 
taken  from  near  the  surface  of  the  ground,  are  avoided. 

2.  In  order  to  ensure  a  constant  and  abundant  supply,  the  air  shaft  must  be 
surmounted  with  a  cowl  or  hood  of  some  kind,  with  its  mouth  turned  towards 
Ike  wind. 

3.  The  fresh  air  should  in  all  cases  be  carried  entirely  beneath  the  furnace. 


BOSTON  MODE  OF  VENTILATION.  315 

If  the  cellar  is  wet  and  the  situation  low,  the  underground  culvert  or  channel 
should  be  of  brick,  laid  in  cement. 

4.  The  furnace  chamber  should  be  so  large  that  it  can  be  entered  at  any 
time,  without  the  necessity  of  taking  down  walls,  for  the  purpose  of  repairs,  or 
to  observe  the  temperature.     A  large  earthen  pan  for  the  evaporation  of  water 
should  never  be  omitted.    This  should  be  kept  always  perfectly  clean,  and  the 
water  required  to  be  frequently  changed. 

5.  A  thermometer  should  be  constantly  at  hand,  and  the  temperature  in  the 
warm-air  chamber  should  never  be  allowed  to  exceed  that  of  boiling  water.    A  still 
lower  temperature  is  often  desirable.     If  this  point  is  secured,  the  hot  air  can 
be  conducted  with  perfect  safety  under  floors,  or  into  any  part  of  the  building, 
for  its  better  diffusion. 

6.  The  openings  for  the  admission  of  the  warm  air  into  the  rooms,  should  ba 
as  numerous  as  possible.     The  long  platform  occupied  by  the  teachers,  by  being 
perforated  in  front  for  its  whole  length,  would  be  an  excellent  diffusing  surface 

7.  Openings  of  ample  size  must  be  made  in  the  highest  points  of  the  ceiling, 
to  be  connected  at  the  top  of  the  roof  with  a  turn-cap  or  louvre,  the  former 
being  always  surmounted  with  a  vane.     It  is  better  that  the  ceiling  should  be 
perforated  at  its  centre,  and  there  is  no  objection  to  running  the  ventilating 
shaft,  at  first,  horizontally,  if  the  perpendicular  and  terminal  portion  of  it  is  ot 
considerable  length. 

8.  It  is  highly  important  to  have  a  power  of  some  sort,  within  the  apparatus  at  its 
top,  for  the  purpose  of  compelling  constant  action,  and  of  increasing  the  force  of 
the  apparatus,  whenever  the  state  of  the  weather,  or  the  crowding  of  the  room, 
render  it  necessary.*     For  this  purpose,  the  most  convenient  and  economical 
means  are  furnished  by  a  gas  bnrner,  an  Argand  lamp,  or  a  stove;  and  one  of 
these  should  be  in  constant  readiness  for  use,  when  neither  the  velocity  of  the 
wind,  or  the  low  temperature  of  the  external  aimosphere  are  sufficient  to  pro- 
duce the  desired  effect. 

9.  All  the  openings  and  flues  for  the  admission  of  pure  air,  and  the  discharge 
of  the  foul  air,  should  be  of  the  maximum  size;  that  is,  they  should  be  calculated 
for  the  largest  numbers  which  the  apartment  is  ever  intended  to  accommodate. 

10.  Valves  must  be  placed  in  all  the  flues,  and  so  arranged  as  to  be  easily 
regulated  without  leaving  the  rooms  into  which  they  open. 

11.  The  best  average  temperature  for  school-rooms,   is  from  64°  to  68° 
Fahrenheit ;  this  range  including  that  of  the  healthiest  climates  in  their  best 
seasons. 

For  the  purpose  of  summer  ventilation,  and  for  occasional  use  in  moderate 
weather,  fireplaces  of  good  size  should  be  constructed  in  all  the  new  houses,  at 
least.  They  should  always  be  double,  and  furnished  with  large  air  chambers, 
which  communicate  with  the  open  air.  When  not  in  use,  they  must  be  closed 
with  tight  boards  or  shutters,  as  they  would  otherwise  interfere  with  the  regular 
ventilation. 

With  these  arrangements,  intelligently  controlled  by  the  Teachers,  your 
Committee  believe  that  an  atmosphere  will  be  secured  which  will  be  perfectly 
agreeable  and  salubrious ;  which  will  lighten  the  labors  of  the  Teachers,  and 
promote  the  comfort,  health,  and  happiness,  of  the  thousands  of  children  who 
are  daily  congregated  in  our  Public  Schools." 

This  Report  was  received,  and  the  same  Committee  were  "  directed 
to  adapt  to  each  school-room  such  apparatus,  if  any,  as  may  be  re- 
quired to  secure  to  them  proper  ventilation  in  winter  and  summer, 
and  to  make  such  alterations  and  arrangements  of  the  furnaces  as 
may  be  required."  To  be  able  to  execute  this  order,  the  Committee 
applied  to  the  City  Authorities  for  an  appropriation  of  $4,000,  which 
was  readily  granted,  after  an  examination  by  a  Joint  Committee  of 
the  Board  of  Aldermen  and  Common  Council,  of  the  school-houses 
in  which  the  improved  ventilating  apparatus  had  been  introduced. 
The  following  is  an  extract  from  the  Report  of  the  Joint  Committee- 

•  This  in  practice  has  not  been  found  necessary,  although  it  may  be  sometimes. 


316  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

"  In  order  to  be  fully  satisfied,  the  Committee  visited  the  Endicott  School, 
where  the  apparatus  was  in  operation.  The  day  was  exceedingly  wet  and  dis- 
agreeable, and  yet  the  air  of  the  rooms  was  found  in  an  unobjectionable  condi- 
tion. The  masters  fully  sustained  the  representations  of  the  petitioners ;  and 
from  their  statements,  as  well  as  from  their  own  observations,  the  Committee 
were  satisfied  of  the  beneficial  effects  of  said  apparatus. 

In  order,  however,  to  have  a  more  full  investigation  of  the  matter,  the  Com- 
Tiittee,  on  a  subsequent  day,  visited  the  Johnson  School  and  the  Boylston 
School.  The  day  was  dry  and  cold,  and  they  found  the  air  in  the  Johnson 
School  in  a  tolerably  good  condition.  This  is  a  girls'  school;  and  it  is  well 
Known  that  the  pupils  in  such  schools  are  neater,  and  attend  in  cleaner  and 
more  tidy  apparel,  than  the  pupils  in  the  boys'  schools. 

In  the  Boylston  School,  however,  the  Committee  found  the  air  very  disagree- 
able and  oppressive ;  and  they  could  not  but  feel  the  importance  of  executing 
some  plan  of  relief." 

If  the  Committee  of  Ways  and  Means, — or  whatever  the  money- 
compelling  power  may  be  called — in  every  city,  and  town,  and  dis- 
trict, would  satisfy  themselves  by  actual  examination,  of  the  necessity 
of  a  more  perfect  system  of  ventilation  in  all  school-rooms,  or  in  all 
public  halls  where  a  large  number  of  human  beings  are  congregated 
for  a  considerable  length  of  time,  and  where  fires  or  lamps  are 
burning,  a  reform  would  be  speedily  introduced  in  this  respect. 

With  the  means  thus  placed  at  their  disposal,  the  Committee 
applied  themselves  diligently  to  the  duty  of  ventilating  the  school- 
houses— and  at  the  close  of  the  year,  they  had  the  satisfaction  of 
announcing  in  their  Final  Report,  "  that  the  Grammar  School-houses 
of  Boston  are  now  in  a  better  condition  in  respect  to  their  ventilation, 
than  any  other  Public  Schools  in  the  world."  The  Committee  thus 
sum  up  the  results  of  their  labors. 

"The  diversity  of  arrangement  and  the  modifications  in  our  plans  which  we 
have  been  compelled  by  circumstances  to  adopt,  have  had  their  advantages,  and 
enabled  us  to  arrive  at  the  best  results,  and  to  satisfy  ourselves  entirely  in  re- 
gard to  the  particular  set  of  apparatus  which  we  can  recommend  with  confi- 
dence for  future  use  as  decidedly  the  most  effective  and  convenient.  We  have 
therefore  furnished  drawings  and  specifications  of  the  set  of  apparatus  which 
we  recommend. 

Chilson's  Furnace. 

Your  Committee  have  made  themselves  acquainted  not  only  with  all  the 
Furnaces  which  have  been  manufactured  in  this  place,  and  its  neighborhood, 
but  with  all  those  which  have  been  exhibited  here  recently.  Most  of  them 
show  much  ingenuity  of  contrivance  and  excellence  of  workmanship  ;  but  are 
all,  so  far  as  we  can  judge,  inferior  in  many  respects,  to  the  one  invented  by 
Mr.  Chilson,  a  model  and  plans  of  which  we  now  exhibit,  and  recommend  as 
superior  to  all  others. 

It  is  simple  in  its  structure,  easily  managed,  will  consume  the  fuel  perfectly, 
and  with  a  moderate  fire.  It  is  fitted  for  wood  or  coal.  The  fire  place  is  broad 
and  shallow,  and  is  lined  with  soapstone  or  fire-brick,  which  not  only  makes  it 
perfectly  safe  and  durable,  but  modifies  very  materially  the  usual  effect  of  the 
fire  upon  the  iron  pot. 

The  principal  radiating  surfaces  are  wrought  iron,  of  a  suitable  thickness 
for  service,  while  at  the  same  time  the  heat  of  the  smallest  fire  is  communi- 
cated immediately  to  the  air  chamber.  The  mode  of  setting  this  Furnace  we 
consider  essential ;  more  especially  the  plan  of  admitting  the  air  to  the  furnace 
at  its  lowest  point,  as  it  then  rises  naturally  into  the  apartments  above.  This 


BOSTON  MODE  OF  VENTILATION. 


317 


process  commences  as  soon  as  the  temperature  is  raised  even  a  single  degree. 
The  outer  walls  remain  cold;  the  floor  above  is  not  endangered,  and  the  whole 
building  is  rapidly  filled  wiih  an  atmosphere  which  is  at  once  salubrious  and 
delightful. 


Section  of  Chilson's  Furnace. 


Elevation. 


Section. 


VENTILATING  STOVE. 

For  the  houses  which  we  found  without  the  Hot  Air  Furnaces,  as  also  lor 
the  Recitation  and  other  single  rooms,  the  invention  of  a  Stove  which  shoul 


313  Sr.EIOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

answer  the  same  purpose  became  essential.  One  was  therefore  contrived  ;  ana 
having  been  found  in  its  earlier  and  ruder  forms  to  be  of  great  utility,  it  has 
since  been  improved  in  its  appearance,  as  well  as  in  the  convenience  of  its 
management. 

These  Stoves  are  composed  of  two  cylinders,  the  inner  containing  a  fire 
chamber,  which  is  lined  with  soap-stone  or  fire  brick,  while  the  outer  consti- 
tutes a  chamber  for  warming  the  air,  which  is  introduced  into  it  beneath  the 
inner  cylinder,  from  an  air  box  directly  connected  with  the  external  atmos- 
phere. 

They  possess  the  following  advantages : — 

1.  They  are  in  fad  furnaces,  having  distinct  and  capacious  air  chambers. 

2.  They  insure,  when  properly  set,  that  supply  of  fresh  air  which  is  indis- 
pensable to  the  proper  ven/ilation  of  any  apartment. 

3.  The  Regulating  Distributor,  which  is  movable  or  fixed,  as  may  be  de- 
sired, determines  with  great  accuracy  the  amount  and  temperature  of  the 
admitted  air. 

4.  The  outer  cylinder  is  never  hot  enough  to  burn  the  person  or  clothing,  or 
to  be  uncomfortable  to  those  who  are  situated  in  its  immediate  vicinity. 

5.  They  are  constructed  with  the  utmost  regard  to  efficiency,  durability, 
compactness,  and  neatness  of  appearance. 

These  Stoves  have  been  furnished  to  the  Schools  whenever  your  Committee 
have  required  their  use,  and  at  manufacturers'  prices,  without  any  profit  what- 
ever to  the  inventor  and  patentee. 

They  may  be  used  with  advantage  in  the  largest  rooms,  when  the  cellars  are 
unfit  for  Furnaces,  or  when  it  is  preferred  to  have  the  fire  in  the  room  itsel£ 
The  Johnson,  Wells,  Hawes,  and  Winthrop  School-houses  are  warmed  entirely 
by  them. 

The  discharging  ventiducts  have  been  made  in  various  ways;  some  of  wood, 
some  of  metal,  and  others  of  '  lath  and  plaster.'  Some  have  opened  at  the 
ceiling  only,  and  in  but  one  part  of  the  room,  while  others  have  been  equally 
divided  at  opposite  sides  of  the  apartment.  Our  rule  is  this: — If  the  Heating 
Apparatus  is  at  one  end  of  an  oblong  room,  the  ventiduct  is  placed  at  the  op- 
posite. If  the  stove  or  furnace  flue  is  at  the  middle  of  the  longest  side,  the 
ventiducts  are  placed  at  each  end,  and  are  of  course  reduced  to  one  half  the 
size  of  the  single  one. 

The  best  manner  of  constructing  them  is  shown  by  the  drawing.  Fig.  1,  and 
described  on  the  following  page. 

There  is  great  economy  in  carrying  the  boxes  to  the  floor  in  all  cases.  In 
this  way  the  room  can  be  kept  warm  and  the  air  pure  in  the  coldest  and  most 
windy  days. 

The  registers  at  the  top  and  bottom  can  be  used  separately  or  together,  ar 
may  be  desired. 

It  is  necessary  and  advantageous  to  apply  some  kind  of  cap  or  other  covering 
upon  the  ventiducts  where  they  terminate  above  the  roof.  It  is  necessary  as  a 
protection  from  the  rain  and  the  down  blasts  of  wind,  and  it  is  also  very  advan- 
tageous to  be  enabled  in  this  way  to  avail  our- 
selves of  the  power  of  the  wind  to  create  an  active 
upward  current.  We  used  at  first  the  turncap 
or  cowl  invented  by  Mr.  Espy,  and  with  satisfac- 
tory results.  It  is  undoubtedly  the  best  movable 
top  known ;  but  is  noisy,  and  somewhat  liable  to 
get  out  of  working  order.  These  objections  to 
the  movable  tops  have  long  been  known,  and  va- 
rious stationary  tops  have  b^en  invented,  and  have 
been  partially  successful.  An  improved  Stationary 
Top,  or  Ejecting  Ventilator,  as  it  is  called,  has 
been  invented  during  the  past  year  by  Mr.  Em- 
erson. It  is  shown  in  the  drawing,  and  consists 
of  the  frustrum  of  a  cone  attached  to  the  top  of  a 
tube,  open  in  its  whole  extent,  and  surmounted  Ejecting  Ventilator. 

by  a  fender  which  is  supported  upon  rods,  and 
answers  the  double  purpose  of  keeping  out  the  rain 
and  of  so  directing  or  turning  a  blast  of  wind  upon  the  structure,  as  that  in  what- 


BOSTON  MODE  OF  VENTILATION. 


319 


ever  direction  it  fall.;,  the  effect,  that  of  causing  a  strong  upward  draft,  will  be 
very  uniform  and  constant. 

Being  satisfied  that  this  Stationary  Ejector  possessed  all  the  advantages  of 
the  best  tops  hitherto  known,  without  the  disadvantages  of  either  of  them,  we 
bave  adopted  it  for  several  of  the  houses  last  ventilated,  and  find  it  in  all  re- 
spects satisfactory.  We  therefore  recommend  it  for  general  use. 

The  Injector  may  generally  be  dispensed  with, 
but  in  situations  unfavorable"  for  introducing  air, 
it  may  be  sometimes  found  convenient,  or  even 
necessary.  [Mr.  Emerson  recommends  the  use 
of  the  InjectGi,  whenever  a  ventilating  stove  or 
furnace  is  used,  so  as  to  secure  ihe  admission  of 
a  quantity  of  pure  air,  warmed  by  the  heating 
surfaces  of  the  stove  or  furnace,  equal  to  the 
quantity  of  air  rendered  impure  by  respiration 
withdrawn  by  the  Ejector.  He  refuses  to  allow 
his  ventilators  to  be  placed  upon  any  school-house 
which  is  not  supplied  with  fresh  warm  air.] 


Injecting  Ventilator*. 


Ventiducts. 

The  discharging  ventiducts  should  be  situated  at  the  part  of  the  rooms  most 
distant  from  the  stove  or  register  of  the  furnace,  and  should  always,  if  possi- 
ble, be  constructed  in  or  upon  an  interior  wall  or  partition,  and  an  outer  brick 
wall  must,  if  possible,  be  avoided.  They  should  be  made  of  thoroughly  sea- 
soned sound  pine  boards,  smoothed  on  the  inner  sides,  and  put  together  with 
two-inch  iron  screws.  The  outside  finish  may  be  of  lath  and  plaster,  or  they 
may  be  projected  backwards  into  a  closet  or  entry,  as  shoAvn  in  Figure  3. 
They  must  be  carried  entirely  to  the  floor,  and  should  be  fitted  at  the  top  and 
bottom  with  a  swivel  blind,  whose  capacity  is  equal  to  that  of  the  ventiduct  into 
which  it  opens.  This  blind  may  be  governed  by  stay  rods  or  pulleys.  The 
elevation  gives  a  view  of  the  ventiducts  for  a  building  of  three  stories, 
and  shows  the  best  mode  of  packing  them,  so  as  to  avoid  injuring  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  rooms. 

These  ventiducts  must  be  kept  entirely  separate  to  the  main  discharger  at  the 
roof,  as  any  other  arrangement  would  impair  or  destroy  their  utility. 

The  size  of  the  ventilators  and  ventiducts  must  correspond  to  the  capacity 
of  the  room,  and  the  number  it  is  intended  to  accommodate. 

A  room  containing  sixty  scholars  is  found  to  require  a  discharging  duct  of 
fourteen  inches  in  diameter.  A  room  for  one  hundred  scholars  requires  the 
lube  to  be  eighteen  inches ;  and  a  room  for  two  hundred  scholars  requires  it  to 
be  twenty- four  inches. 

The  fresh,  air  ventidiicts  should  exceed  in  capacity  those  for  carrying  off  the 
impure"  air  by  about///!?/  per  cent.;  so  that  there  "will  then  always  be  a  sur- 
plus or  plenum  supply,  and  the  little  currents  of  cold  which  press  in  at  the 
crevices  of  the  doors  and  windows  will  be  entirely  prevented. 

The  section  shown  in  Fig.  3  exhibits  a  very  convenient  mode  of  bringing  the 
cold  air  to  the  ventilating  stoves  in  a  three  story  building  in  connection  with 
the  smoke  flues. 


320  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

FIGURE  1.  FIGURE  2L 


Elevation  of  Ventiducts. 


a.    Cold  air  ducts. 
d.    Smoke  flues 


BOSTON  MODE  OF  VENTILATION. 


321 


The  following  section,  (Fig.  3,)  and  plans  (Fig's.  4  and  5,)  exhibit  at  one 
view  an  example  of  a  building  of  two  stories  warmed  and  ventilated  by  the 
apparatus  and  in  the  manner  recommended. 


FIGURE  3. 


A.  Chilson's  Furnace. 

B.  The  Boston  School  Stove. 

C.  Emerson's  Ejector. 

a.  Cold  or  fresh  air  ducts. 

b.  Warmed  air  ducts. 

c.  Impure  air  ducts. 

d.  Smoke  flues. 


The  letters  on  the  plans  correspond  to  those  in  the  section. 

21 


822 


SCHOOL-HOUSE  ARCHITECTURE. 


Plans  of  First  and  Second  Floors. 
FIGURE  4. 


Second  Floor. 

A.    Furnace,    a.  a.  a.    Fresh  air  ducts,    b.  b.  b.    Warm  air  registers, 
c.  c.  c.    Impure  air  ducts. 

The  modes  of  ventilation  and  heating  above  described  and  illus 
trated,  were  unanimously  approved  by  the   school  committee,   and 
recommended   to   the    city   government,   for  introduction  into  the 
school-houses  which  may  be  hereafter  erected. 


BOSTON  MODE  OF  VENTILATION.  323 

The  Committee  append  to  their  Report  directions  for  the  manage- 
ment of  the  Stoves,  Furnaces  and  Ventiducts,  to  which  they  request 
the  attention  of  the  masters  of  the  Public  Schools,  in  conformity  to 
the  rule  of  the  Board,  which  requires  their  attention  to  the  Ventilation 
of  the  School-houses  under  their  care. 

Rules  relative  to  the  use  of  the  Stoves,  Furnaces  and  Ventilators. 

1.  To  kindle  the  fire. — Close  the  upper,  and  open  the  lower  registers  of  the 
ventiducts;  close  the  upper  door  of  the  stove  or  furnace  and  open  the  lower 
door;  place  the  cover  of  the  stove  one  or  two  inches  up. 

2.  After  (he  room  becomes  warm — Raise  the  cover  of  the  stove  three  or  five 
inches ;  close  the  lower  door  of  the  stove  and  open  the  upper  door ;  open  the 
registers  of  the  ventiducts  about  half  their  width. 

3.  If  the  room  become  too  warm — Open  the  registers  full  width,  and  raise  the 
cover  of  the  stove  high  up,  keeping  the  upper  door  of  the  stove  or  furnace  open, 
and  the  lower  door  closed. 

4.  If  the  room  become  too  cool — Close  the  upper  registers,  (for  a  short  time 
only;)  close  the  upper  door  of  the  stove  and  open  the  lower  door;  drop  the 
cover  down  within  two  inches  of  the  sides. 

5.  Never  close  the  top  of  the  stove  entirely  down,  while  there  is  any  fire 
therein. 

6.  At  night,  on  leaving  the  room,  let  the  cover  of  the  stove  down  within  one 
inch  of  the  sides ;   close  the  lower  door,  and  open  the  upper  one ;  place  all  the 
registers  open  about  half  their  width. 

7.  Fill  the  water  basins  every  morning,  and  wash  them  twice  a  week. 

The  fires  should  be  kept,  if  possible,  through  the  night,  by  covering  the  coaL 
The  coal  to  be  white  ash. 

Construction  of  Ventiducts. 

Since  the  first  edition  of  this  work  was  published,  the  following  note 
has  been  received  from  Dr.  Clark,  in  relation  to  the  structure  of  the  dis- 
charging ventiducts. 

BOSTON,  Feb.  12th,  1849. 

HENRY  BARXARD.  ESQ.: 

My  Dear  Sir, — Will  you  allow  me  to  ask  your  attention  to  a  single  matter  relating 
to  ventilation  ?  I  refer  to  the  construction,  situation,  and  proper  materials  of  the  venti- 
ducts which  are  intended  to  carry  off  the  foul  air.  In  almost  all  instances  within  my 
knowledge,  excepting  in  the  buildings  in  this  place,  which  have  been  ventilated  within 
two  or  thrf-e  years  past, 'these  discharging  ducts  are  made  of  brick  or  stone,  being  often, 
therefore,  also  built  in  the  outer  wall.  If  there  is  any  peculiar  advantage  in  our  school 
house  ventilation,  its  success  is  very  much  owing  to  the  manner  of  locating  and  con 
structing  these  same  ejecting  ventiducts. 

The  brick  ducts  always  operate  downwards  ;  that  is  to  say,  the  air  has  a  constant  ten- 
dency to  fall  in  them,  and  they  will  never  "draw''  in  the  proper  or  upward  direct  ion,  with 
the  best  turncap  or  top  known,  unless  there  is  a  hiizh  wind,  or  unless  artificial  power, 
such  as  a  fart,  or  a  fan  wheel  be  put  in  requisition.  Now  the  contrary  is  the  fact  with  the 
thin  wooden,  or  lath-and-plaster,  interior  ventiduct .  The  current  is  always  in  the  riuhl  or 
upward  direction.  They  are  warmed  to  the  temperature  of  the  room,  and  when  provided 
with  a  proper  top  will  operate  in  all  seasons.  Although  the  currents  will  vary  in  power 
and  rapidity,  yet,  while  almost  all  our  ventiducts  are  provided,  and  should  be,  with 
means  of  heating  by  lamps  or  otherwise,  I  believe  they  have  scarcely  had  occasion  to 
light  them.  So  that  any  impressions  formed  in  relation  to  this  part  of  the  subject  from 
the  English,  and  particularly  the  French  methods  of  ventilating  school-houses,  when  the 
brick  flues  are  always  used,  must  be  entirely  erroneous.  The  days  in  which  the  fires  in 
the  French  flues  wmild  be  forgotten  and  omitted,  or  be  permitted  to  go  out,  would  far  exceed 
the  number  of  those  in  which  our  ventiducts  would  not  act  in  the  most  perfect  manner 
without  any  power  at  all. 

I  would  not  have  troubled  you,  but  that  I  know  this  point,  from  much  practical  experi- 
ence, to  be  worthy  of  especial  attention,  and  in  case  you  should  publish  a  new  edition  of 
your  work  on  school-houses,  I  hope  it  may  be  considered. 

I  am,  dear  sir, 

Yours  very  truly, 

HENRY  G.  CLARK 


324 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

APPARATUS  FOR  WARMING. 


THE  thorough  ventilation,  the  constant  and  regular  change  of  the  at- 
mosphere of  a  school-room  cannot  be  secured  by  simply  providing  flues  or 
openings,  however  judiciously  constructed  and  placed,  for  the  escape  of 
the  air  which  has  become  impure  from  the  process  of  breathing  or  other 
causes.  These  flues  will  not  work  satisfactorily,  unless  a  mode  of  warm- 
ing the  room  is  adopted  by  which  a  large  supply  of  pure  fresh  air,  properly 
heated,  is  flowing  in  to  supply  the  place  of  that  which  is  escaping  by  means 
of  the  flues.  Among  the  various  modes  of  warming  school-rooms  and  public 
halls,  which  we  have  seen  in  full  and  successful  operation,  we  select  a  few, 
in  addition  to  those  described  in  other  parts  of  the  work)  as  worthy  of  the  par- 
ticular attention  of  committees  and  others,  who  are  looking  round  for  a 
heating  apparatus.  We  shall  use  the  cuts  and  description  by  which  the 
patentees  and  venders  have  chosen  to  make  their  several  modes  of  warm- 
ing known  to  the  public,  without  intending  to  decide  on  the  relative 
merits  of  any  one  mode. 

CULVER'S  Hor-AiR  FURNACE. 

PATENTED  AND  MANUFACTURED  BY  CULVER  &  Co.,  52  CLIFF-STREET,  NEW  YORK. 

Culver's  Hot-Air  Furnace,  as  described  in  the  following  diagram  and 
explanations,  is  intended  for  hard  coal,  to  be  set  in  double  walls  of  brick 
masonry  in  cellar  or  basement,  below  the  rooms  to  be  warmed. 

Figure  1. 


A.  Iron  or  Brick  Ash  Pit. 

B.  Ash  Pit  door. 

C.  Pot,    or    coal    Burner, 

with  or  without  soap- 
stone  lining. 

D.  Fire  Chamber. 

E.  Lower  half  of  Tubular 

drum. 

F.  Elliptical  tubes. 

G.  Upper  half  of  Tubular 

drum. 

H.  Top  of  Tubular  drum. 

I.     Cap  and  smoke  pipe. 

K.  Flat  Radiator. 

L.  Water  bason  or  evapo- 
rator. 

M.  Smoke  pipe  to  chimney. 

N.  Conductors  of  Hot  Air. 

O.  Cold  air  conductor  and 
chamber. 

P.   Feed  door. 

Q,.  Hot-Air  chamber. 

R.  Damper  in  globe  with 
rod  attached. 

S.    Pendulum    valve     for 
cleaning. 

-+•  Shows  the  direc- 
tion of  the  currents  of 
hot  or  cold  air. 


CULVER'S  FURNACE. 


325 


Culver  &:  Co.  also  make,  and  put  up,  various  sizes  of  Portable  Furnaces,  with 
metallic  coverings,  suitable  for  counting  rooms,  stores,  school- rooms  and  small 
houses,  warming  the  rooms  in  which  they  stand,  as  well  as  others  in  the  same 
building,  and  they  can  be  removed  in  summer  as  conveniently  as  stoves. 

Figure  3. 


Figure  2  represents  a  section  of  large  size  Portable  Furnace  or  double  cas- 
ings of  sheet  iron  or  zinc.  The  same  letters  for  reference  are  used  as  in  Fig.  1. 

Figure  3  represents  a  smaller  size  Portable  Furnace,  with  two  metal  cover- 
ings and  an  evaporating  dish  standing  upon  the  top  of  the  drum. 

The  peculiarities  and  advantages  of  the  Furnace  are  thus  set  forth: 

1.  Its  compact,  convenient  and  beautiful  form. 

2.  Its  great  durability ;  being  in  all  its  parts  of  cast  iron,  set  within  walls  of 
brick  masonry.     The  pot  or  burner  being  whole,  is  found  by  experience  to  be 
more  durable  than  those  made  of  rings  or  segments,  and  entirely  prevents  the 
admission  of  gas  into  the  hot-air  chamber. 

3.  The  great  radiating  surfaces  of  this  Furnace  exceed  those  of  any  other, 
and  being  nearly  all  perpendicular,  and  so  arranged  as  to  afford  no  chance  for 
the  soot,  light  coal  ashes  or  dust  to  collect  on  the  plates  and  prevent  the  trans- 
mission of  heat  through  them,  for  it  must  be  obvious  to  every  thinking  mind, 
that  if  a  radiating  surface  is  of  a  zig-zag,  or  any  other  fonn  that  prevent?,  the 
descent  of  dust  or  soot  in  a  perpendicular  line,  it  will  certainly  collect  dust  upon 
it,  and  just  so  much  surface  thus  cover?'*    s  destroyed  for  radiating  purposes, 
and  in  the  same  proportion  will  a  grearei  consumption  of  fuel  be  required  to 
produce  a  given  result. 

These  furnaces  are  so  constructed  that  heat  acts  actively  upon  those  surfaces 
within,  and  produces  the  immediate  and  powerful  heating  of  the  cold  air  that 
is  admitted  to  the  outer  surface  from  the  atmosphere,  through  the  tubes  for  that 
purpose. 

4.  The  great  economy  in  rhe  use  of  fuel,  making  and  controlling  more  heat 
than  by  any  other  process  of  using  it. 

5.  The  joints  of  this  Furnace  are  so  constructed  that  the  expansion  and  con- 
traction   of  the  metal  cannot  open  them  to  admit  gas  into  the  hot-air  chamber, 
and  it  can  be  cleaned  of  soot  and  ashes  easily,  without  the  necessity  of  taking 
down   or  breaking  a  joint;   its  action  is  simple,  as  easily  understood   and 
managed  as  a  cylinder  stove,  and  as  readily  repaired  and  kept  in  order,  and  the 
manner  of  "removing  the  deposits"  is  entirely  novel  and  most  efficient. 

6.  The  constant  current  of  the  pure  atmosphere  into  the  air  chamber,  with 


£26 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


the  evaporation  for  tempering  it  to  any  degree  of  humidity,  gives  a  fine  health- 
ful ventilation,  and  a  soft  summer  lemperature,  suited  to  the  most  delicate  con- 
stitution, and  without  injury  to  the  building  or  furniture. 

The  above  described  Air  Heaters  are  manufactured  and  sold,  wholesale  and 
retail,  by  Culver  &  Co.,  who,  when  required,  set  them  in  double  walls  of  brick 
masonry,  with  cast  iron  smoke  pipe  to  chimneys,  and  conductors  of  hot  air.  of 
double  cross  tin,  terminating  with  registers  in  the  rooms,  and  secured  safely 
from  fire  by  tin  or  soap-stone  linings. 

Figure  4. 


Figure  4  represents  patterns  of  scroll  work  Registers  manufactured  by  Culver 
&  Co.,  and  put  in  with  their  furnaces  if  desired.  The  registers  have  valves 
under  the  surface,  which  are  easily  controlled  by  means  of  the  star  centers. 
They  can  be  used  for  ventilating  purposes  as  well  as  for  admitting  warm  air. 

The  following  directions  are  given  in  Culver  &  Co.'s  Circular  for  the 
use  of  their  Furnace. 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  USE. — In  kindling  the  fire,  the  valve  should  be  opened  by 
drawing  out  the  Damper  Rod  R,  so  as  to  let  the  smoke  pass  directly  through 
smoke  pipe  M  to  chimney. 

Shavings,  pine  wood,  or  charcoal,  should  be  thrown  into  the  pot  or  coal  burner 
C,  and  when  well  ignited,  put  in  about  half  a  hod  of  coal,  and  as  soon  as  it  also 
becomes  ignited,  fill  the  pot  two  thirds  full  of  coal,  and  push  the  damper  R  partly 
in,  so  as  to  regulate  the  draught  and  heat  as  may  benecessary.  The.  valve  may 
be  entirely  closed,  if  need  be,  so  as  to  retain  the  heat,  making  it  to  pass  through 
the  Flat  Radiator  K. 

In  moderate  weather,  when  little  heat  is  wanted,  put  two  shovels  full  of  ashes 
on  the  centre  of  the  fire,  and  by  regulating  the  draught,  you  can  make  one  fire 
last  24  hours  without  any  alteration;  and  when  you  wish  to  renew  the  fire, 
poke  out  a  portion  of  the  ashes,  and  put  on  fresh  coal,  without  turning  the  grate. 

In  cold  weather,  however,  to  secure  a  brisk  fire,  the  crank  should  be  turned 
so  as  to  empty  the  pot  entirely  of  ashes,  and  commence  a  new  fire  at  least  once 
in  34  hours. 

When  there  is  too  much  heat  generated,  the  ash-pit  door,  B,  should  be  closed 
entirely,  and  the  damper  rod  partly  drawn  out,  and  if  this  is  not  sufficient,  the 
Register  in  feed-door  P  may  be  opened;  the  heat  in  the  different  rooms  may  be 
regulated  by  opening  or  closing  the  Registers ;  all  the  Registers  however  should 
never  be  closed  it  the  same  time,  unless  the  water  door  is  opened  to  let  out  the 
hot  air. 

The  cold- air  :onductor,  0,  should  always  be  open  when  the  Furnace  is  in 
operation. 


SAND-BATH  AND  DISTILLING  APPARATUS. 


327 


Mr.  Culver  manufactures  a  Sand-Bath,  with  Water-Bath  and  Distilling  Appa- 
ratus attached,  which  possesses  the  recommendations  of  efficiency,  compactness, 
and  economy  of  fuel.  The  following  description  applies  to  one  erected  by  him  in 
the  Yale  Analytical  Laboratory,  New  Haven,  as  described  by  Prof.  John  P.  Nor- 
ton, in  Silliman's  Journal  for  July,  1851. 


129  6   3  0 


Fig.  1.— FURNACE. 

In  fig.  1,  a  is  the  furnace,  the  position  of  which  is  also  seen  at  a  in  fig.  2. 
The  heat  of  the  fire  passes  through  the  bed  plate,  6,  6,  fig.  2,  heating  the  sand 
which  lies  upon  its  upper  surface.  All  noxious  fumes  are  conveyed  away  by  the 
ventilator  c,  fig.  2,  which  opens  into  a  chimney  flue,  and  may  be  closed  or  opened 
at  pleasure  by  the  chain  d.  To  this  sand-bath,  the  water-baths  and  distilling  ap- 
paratus are  attached. 

The  furnace  a  is  an  iron  pot,  lined  inside  with  firebrick  as  usual,  c,  c,  fig.  1 , 
where  is  inserted  a  water-back  of  large  size.  This  communicates  by  the  pipe/, 
with  the  water-bath  g.  There  are  two  of  these  pipes,  one  above,  and  one  below, 
as  shown  at  /,  /,  in  fig.  2,  through  the  open  door.  The  front  elevation  of  the 
water-bath,  which  is  of  copper  in  all  its  parts,  is  shown  at  £•,  in  fig.  2.  Each  of 
the  doors  seen  on  the  front,  opens  into  a  separate  compartment.  The  depth  of 
these  compartments  is  shown  by  the  sections  A,  A,  A,  in  fig.  1.  At :,  fig.  2,  is  a 
larger  compartment,  for  receiving  articles  of  considerable  size. 

At^',  is  a  glass  tube  to  show  the  height  of  water  in  the  water-bath,  and  at  &,  a 
cock  placed  so  low  that  all  of  the  water  contained  may  be  drawn  off,  thus  remor- 
ing  any  small  quantity  of  sediment  which  occasionally  accumulates.  These  two 
parts  are  seen  more  clearly  at  j,  and  &,  in  fig.  3. 

The  furnace  is  fed  through  a  door  at  I.  A  moderate  fire  is  sufficient  to  estab- 
lish a  brisk  circulation  through  the  pipes/,/,  and  causes  the  water  to  boil  violently 
in  the  water-bath,  keeping  it  always  full,  up  to  212O  F.  The  steam  formed 
escapes  through  the  pipe  m,  fig.  1,  also  shown  at  m,  m,  figs.  2  and  3.  At  n,  figs. 
2  and  3,  is  a  coupling,  connecting  the  copper  m  with  a  blocktin  pipe  o,  figs.  2  and 
3,  and  worm  p,  fig.  1.  This  worm  is  contained  in  the  condenser  7,  figs.  2  and  3. 
The  distilled  water  thus  produced,  escapes  at  r,  figs.  2  and  3,  and  runs  into  the 
receiver  *,  beneath.  The  condenser  stands  on  a  shelf  over  a  sink  *,  figs.  1 , 2,  and 
3,  at  the  farther  end  of  which  is  a  force  pump  u,  figs.  1  and  3.  A  pipe  c,  figs,  1 


328  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

»nd  3,  runs  from  the  top  of  this  pump  into  the  condenser.  The  pump  delivers 
oold  water  into  the  sink  in  the  common  way,  but  by  closing  the  cock  at  w,  fig.  3, 
will  throw  its  stream  into  the  condenser.  This  water,  when  warm,  is  drawn  off  at 
the  cock  x,  figs.  1,  2,  and  3.  The  pipe  from  this  cock,  seen  at  y,  fig.  1,  rises  to 
within  an  inch  or  two  of  the  top  of  the  condenser,  so  that  the  warm  water  is  drawn 
off  first.  By  this  arrangement,  the  very  great  convenience  is  obtained  of  a  con- 
stant supply  of  hot  water,  delivered  into  the  sink  for  washing. 

As  the  well  water  at  New  Haven  contains  a  considerable  amount  of  solid  mat- 
ter, which  soon  incrusts  the  interior  of  vessels  in  which  it  is  steadily  boiled,  rain 
water  only  is  used  in  the  water-bath.  The  supply  is  kept  up  through  the  pipe  z,  as 
shown  in  figs.  1 ,  2  and  3,  running  under  the  floor.  Its  whole  course  may  be  traced 
by  these  three  figures.  It  rises  into  the  box  A,  figs.  1,  and  3,  in  which  the  water 
stands  on  a  level  with  the  upper  part  of  the  glass  guage  tube,  shown  at^;',  in  fig.  3. 
Upon  the  surface  floats  a  large,  hollow,  copper  ball,  B,  fig.  1.  As  soon  as  the  for- 
mation of  steam,  and  its  consequent  passing  off  into  the  condenser,  commences  in 
the  water-bath,  the  surface  of  course  lowers,  and  a  corresponding  lowering  occurs 
in  the  box  A.  The  copper  ball  B  sinks  with  the  water,  and  gradually  opens  a 
valve  at  C,  fig.  1.  This  admits  a  stream  of  water  from  an  elevated  cistern,  which 
flows  in  just  fast  enough  to  supply  that  which  passes  off  from  the  water-bath  as 
steam. 

This  arrangement  is  only  novel  in  its  present  application,  being,  I  believe,  quite 
common  in  some  of  our  cities  for  regulating  the  flow  of  water  into  cisterns.  It 
works  admirably  in  the  present  case,  and  seldom  if  ever  requires  any  attention. 
If  the  fire  is  very  hot,  so  much  steam  is  occasionally  generated,  that  it  is  not  con- 
densed with  sufficient  rapidity  ;  a  partial  flow  of  hot  water  back  into  the  box  A, 
has  several  times  occurred  under  these  circumstances,  but  has  never  been  suffi- 
cient to  overflow.  This  difficulty  might  be  avoided  by  enlarging  the  conducting 
pipe  m,  and  the  worm  p,  or  by  reducing  the  size  of  the  water-back  c,  e,fig.  1. 

The  space  D,  fig.  1,  is  a  large,  dry,  hot  oven,  where  quite  a  high  heat  is  obtained. 
This  is  also  shown  at  D,  the  door  being  taken  off.  In  this  oven  a  shelf  is  placed, 
perforated  with  holes  for  the  insertion  of  funnels,  tubes,  &c.  It  is  in  constant  use 
for  drying,  and  is  found  to  be  of  very  great  service  in  all  cases  where  rapid  dry- 
ing is  desirable,  and  a  precise  temperature  is  not  required.  The  small  door  at  E, 
fig.  2,  is  another  means  of  access  to  this  oven. 

The  water-bath  is  set  in  the  brickwork,  but  may  be  taken  out  and  reset  without 
disturbing  the  rest  of  the  apparatus  5  in  fact,  every  part  is  accessible.  The  coup- 
lings to  the  pipes/,  /,  may  be  reached  through  the  door  F ;  those  to  the  supply 
pipa  z,  at  G,  fig.  3,  those  to  the  escape  pipe  ?n,  by  taking  out  a  brick  at  H,  fig.  3. 
In  order  to  obtain  ready  access  to  the  interior  of  the  furnace  pot  a,  there  is  a 
large  movable  circular  plate  immediately  above  ;  its  circumference  is  shown  by 
the  dotted  line  at  I,  I,  in  fig.  1. 

The  supply  of  water  from  the  cistern  to  the  box  A,  is  cut  off  by  a  stop-cock  at 
the  cistern,  and  the  water  may  be  entirely  drawn  off  from  the  box  by  a  small 
cock  at  J,  under  the  floor. 

It  will  be  seen  that  this  arrangement  is  compact  and  simple.  There  is  no  part 
liable  to  get  out  of  order,  or  that,  once  out  of  order,  can  not  be  easily  reached  for 
the  purpose  of  repairs. 

By  means  of  one  fire,  and  that  not  large,  we  heat  the  sand-bath  sufficiently, 
maintain  a  large  water-bath  constantly  at  21 2°  F.,  make  from  ten  to  fifteen  gal- 
lons of  perfectly  pure  water  per  day,  heat  a  large  drying  oven,  and  keep  a  con- 
stant supply  of  hot  water  over  the  sink  for  washing.  Every  thing  takes  care  of 
itself,  excepting  the  fire,  and  the  occasional  pumping  of  cold  water  into  the  con- 
denser. I  am  unable,  after  two  months  of  experience,  to  suggest  any  important 
improvement  in  these  arrangements,  and  feel  confident  that  any  one  who  should 
put  up  a  similar  apparatus  would  not  be  disappointed. 

The  iron  work  is  all  japanned.  The  glass  should  be  set  with  a  putty  made 
of  boiled  linseed  oil,  as  that  will  harden  under  the  heat  to  which  it  is  exposed  ; 
the  common  putty  made  with  fish  oil  remains  soft,  and  the  glass  is  constantly  lia« 
We  to  get  out  of  place. 

Prof.  Norton  expresses  his  obligations  to  Mr.  Culver,  for  the  practical  skill  by 
which  the  difficulties  in  adjusting  the  different  parts  of  this  apparatus  were  over- 
come, and  for  the  substantial  and  satisfactory  manner  in  which  the  work  was  done. 


SAND  BATH  AND  DISTILLING  APPARATUS. 


320 


Fig.  2.— FROKT  ELEVATIOH. 


Fig.  3.— SIDE  ELIVATIOH. 


330  BCIIOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

MOTT'S  VENTILATING  SCHOOL-STOVE,  FOR  BURNING  WOOD  OR  COAL. 

Patented  and  Manufactured  by  J.  L.  MOTT,  264  Water-street,  N.  Y. 

By  this  stove  the  room  is  warmed  by  conducting  a  supply  of  moderate/y 
heated  pure  air  from  without,  as  well  as  by  direct  radiation  from  the  upper  por- 
tion of  the  stove. 


A.  Air  Chamber,  lor  coal   or 

wood. 

B.  A  revolving   grate  with  a 

cam  process,  by  which  the 
ashes  are  easily  detached 
and  made  to  drop  into  the 
ash-pit  below. 

C.  Ash-Pit,  by  which  also  the 

draft  can  be  regulated,  and 
the  stove  made  an  air-tight. 

D.  Duct,  or  flue  under  the  floor, 

by  which  fresh  air  from 
without  is  admitted  under 
and  around  the  stove,  and 
circulates  in  the  direction 
indicated  by  the  arrows. 


This,  and  all  stoves  designed  to  promote  ventilation  by  introducing  fresh  air 
from  without,  will  work  satisfactorily  only  where  a  flue  properly  constructed 
is  provided  to  carry  off  the  air  which  "has  become  impure  from  respiration. 


CHILSON'S  VENTILATING  STOVES. 


331 


CHILSON'S  COAL  VENTILATING  SCHOOL  STOVES. 

The  Boston  Ventilating  Stove,  Fig.  1,  designed  and  patented  by  Dr.  Clark,  and 
Chilson's  Patent  Trio  Portable  Furnace,  Fig.  2,  are  composed  of  a  cylinder  of  sheet- 
iron,  inclosing  a  fire-chamber  which  is  lined  with  soapstone,  or  fire-brick,  and  is 
so  made  as  to  present  a  large  amount  of  radiating  surface.  The  air  to  be  warmed, 
is  introduced  beneath  the  fire-chamber  by  a  flue  from  out  of  doors,  and  passing  up, 
and  around  the  heated  surface,  flows  directly  into  the  room,  or  into  pipes  to  be 
communicated  into  other  departments,  as  indicated  by  the  arrows  in  the  above 
drawings.  These  stoves  and  furnaces  are  intended  to  burn  coal. 

FIG.  1.  FIG.  2. 


CHILSON'S  WOOD  VENTILATING  STOVE. 

Mr.  Chllson  has  also  patented  a  plan  of  stove  for  burning  wood,  Fig.  3,  by  which 
the  air  is  introduced  by  a  flue  beneath  the  stove,  and  is  warmed  by  circulating 
through  cast-iron  tubes,  which  constitute  the  sides  and  ends  of  the  stove. 

FIG.  3. 


332  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

CHILSON'S  Am  WARMING  AND  VENTILATING  FURNACE, 
Patented  and  Manufactured  by  Gardner  Chilson,  Boston. 


The  construction  of  the  Air-  Warming  and  Ventilating  Furnace  was  projected 
by  the  inventor,  to  obviate  the  serious,  if  not  fatal,  objections,  so  generally 
made,  to  the  use  of  furnaces  for  warming  apartments,  where  a  fresh,  healthful 
atmospheric  air  is  required.  From  long  experience  in  putting  up  furnaces,  in 
which  coal  was  consumed  in  deep  iron  pots,  and  the  air  which  they  warmed  was 
made  to  pass  over  a  large  extent  of  iron  surface,  made  and  kept  red-hot,  he 
found  that  the  occupants  of  the  rooms  thus  warmed,  complained  that  the  air 
was  not  unfrequently  filled  with  the  gases  of  the  burning  coal,  and  was  at  all 
times  dry  and  stagnant,  causing,  especially  to  persons  of  a  nervous  tempera- 
ment, disagreeable  sensations  to  the  whole  system,  such  as  dizziness  of  the 
head,  headache,  inflammation  of  the  eyes  and  lungs,  dryness  of  the  lips  and 
skin,  &c.  He  found,  too,  by  his  own  experience  and  observation  in  the  manu- 
facture and  use  of  furnaces  of  this  kind,  that  there  was  an  unnecessary  con- 
sumption of  coal,  when  burnt  in  deep,  straight  and  narrow  pots,  causing  the 
coal  to  melt  andTun  to  cinders,  and  at  the  same  time  burning  out  the  pots,  and 
loosening  the  joints  of  the  furnace,  by  which  the  deadly  gases  escaped  into  the 
air-chambers,  and  hence  into  the  apartments  above.  These  objections,  both  on 
the  score  of  health  and  expense,  the  inventor  claims  that  he  has  thoroughly  ob- 
viated in  his  Air-  Warming  and  Ventilating  Furnace,  and  at  the  same  time  pre- 
served all  the  advantages  heretofore  realized  from  this  mode  of  warming  build- 
ings. The  advantages  of  the  Furnace  are — 

1.  The  fire-pot  is  constructed  on  the  most  economical  and  philosophical 
principles.  It  is  broad  and  shallow,— at  least  twice  as  broad  and  one  third  as 
deep  as  the  common  fire-pot ;— is  one  third  smaller  at  the  bottom  than  at  the 
top,  and  is  lined  with  fire-brick  or  soap-stone.  Thus  the  fire-bed  is  deep  enough 
to  keep  the  coal  well  ignited  with  a  slow  but  perfect  combustion,  while  the  en- 
tire heat  from  the  fuel  is  given  out  to  act  upon  the  radiating  surface  alone  and 
the  fire-pot  can  never  become  red-hot,  and  does  not  require  renewal.  This 
plan  for  burning  coal  is  original  with  the  inventor,  and  has  met  with  universal 
approbation. 

•2.  The  radiating  surface  is  large,  and  so  placed  that  it  receives  the  immedi- 
ate and  natural  action  of  the  heat,  and  at  the  same  time  imparts  its  heat  in  lie 


CHILSON'S  FURNACE.  333 

most  direct  and  uniform  manner  to  the  fresh  air  from  without,  wunout  suffering 
waste  by  absorption  from  the  outer  walls  of  the  air-chamber. 

3.  The  air-chamber  is  large,  and  the  fresh  air  is  admitted  and  discharged 
so  readily  and  uniformly  that  no  portion  of  the  radiating  surface  can  ever  be- 
come overheated  ;  and  a  delightful  summer  temperature  is  maintained  in  the 
rooms. 

4.  The  joints  of  the  furnace  are  so  constructed,  that,  even  if  the  iron-work 
was  liable,  like  other  furnaces,  to  crack  from  extreme  expansion,  by  being  over- 
heated, (which  it  is  not,)  the  gas  from  the  burning  coal  cannot  escape  into  the 
air-chamber. 

5.  There  are  no  horizontal  inner  surfaces  on  which  dust  and  soot  can  gather, 
which  do  not,  at  the  same  time,  clean  themselves,  or  admit  of  being  easily 
cleaned. 

G.  The  grate  in  the  fire-pot  is  so  constructed,  that  the  ashes  can  be  easily  de- 
tached, and  the  combustion  facilitated. 

7.  It  has  stood  all  the  test  which  sharp  rivalry  and  the  most  severe  philosophi- 
cal practical  science  could  apply  to  it.  and  has  thus  far  accomplished  all  that 
its  inventor  promised,  and  when  tried  in  the  same  building  with  other  fur- 
naces, has  uniformly  received  the  preference. 

Dr.  Bell.  Superintendent  of  the  McLean  Asylum  for  the  Insane,  who  has 
given  this  whole  subject  his  particular  attention,  in  his  Essay  on  the  Practical 
Methods  of  Ventilating  Buildings,  published  in  the  proceedings  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts Medical  Society  for  1848,  remarks  as  follows  : 

"  The  character  of  any  variety  of  the  hot-air  furnace  is  measured,  in  my 
judgment,  by  the  simplicity  of  its  construction,  its  non-liability  to  be  brought 
to  an  undue  degree  of  hea't  in  any  part,  and  its  ready  receipt  and  emission  of 
air.  That  made  by  Mr.  Gardner  Chilson,  of  Boston,  with  an  air-chamber  of 
brick,  and  an  interspace  of  two  or  three  feet  in  width,  appears  to  me  to  combine 
all  the  essentials  attainable  of  this  mode  of  heating  air,  more  fully  than  any 
other  which  has  fallen  under  my  observation." 

In  1847.  the  School  Committee  of  Boston  sanctioned,  by  a  unanimous  vote, 
the  introduction  of  this  furnace  into  the  new  school-houses  to  be  erected  in 
that  city,  on  the  recommendation  of  a  sub-committee,  to  which  the  whole  sub- 
ject of  warming  and  ventilating  the  school-rooms  had  been  referred.  The  fol- 
lowing is  the  recommendation  referred  to. 

<;  Your  Committee  have  made  themselves  acquainted  not  only  with  all  the 
Furnaces  which  have  been  manufactured  in  this  place,  and  its  neighborhood, 
but  with  all  those  which  have  been  exhibited  here  recently.  Most  of  them 
show  much  ingenuity  of  contrivance  and  excellence  of  workmanship ;  but  are 
all,  so  far  as  we  can  judge,  inferior,  in  many  respects,  to  the  one  invented  by 
Mr.  Chilson,  a  model  and  plans  of  which  we'  now  exhibit,  and  recommend  as 
superior  to  all  others. 

It  is  simple  in  its  structure,  easily  managed,  will  consume  the  fuel  perfectly, 
and  with  a  moderate  fire.  It  is  fitted  for  wood  or  coal.  The  fire-place  is  broad 
and  shallow,  and  is  lined  with  soapstone  or  fire-brick,  which  not  only  makes  it 
perfectly  safe  and  durable,  but  modifies  very  materially  the  usual  effect  of  the 
fire  upon  the  iron  pot. 

The  principal  radiating  surfaces  are  wrought  iron,  of  a  suitable  thickness 
for  service,  while  at  the  same  time  the  heat  of  the  smallest  fire  is  communi- 
cated immediately  to  the  air-chamber.  The  mode  of  setting  this  Furnace  we 
consider  essential;  more  especially  the  plan  of  admitting  the  air  to  the  furnace 
at  its  lowest  point,  as  it  then  rises  naturally  into  the  apartments  above.  This 
process  commences  as  soon  as  the  temperature  is  raised  even  a  single  degree. 
The  outer  walls  remain  cold  ;  the  floor  above  is  not  endangered,  and  the  whole 
building  is  rapidly  filled  with  an  atmosphere  which  is  at  once  salubrious  and 
delightful." 

This  Ventilating  Furnace  may  be  seen  in  the  Mayhew,  Dwijjht,  Hancock. 
Boylston,  Bowdoin,  and  Ingraham  school-houses,  in  Boston;  also  in  several 
new  xriu,t,l-liouses  in  Cambridge,  Roxbury,  Dorchester.  Springfield,  in  the 
Biina  Asvititn  and  House  of  Industry,  South  Boston,  and  in  hundreds  of  pri- 
Vdie  houses  in  Boston  and  its  vicinity. 


334 


SCOOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


DIRECTIONS  FOR  SETTING  CHILSON'S  PATENT  FURNACE. 


In  locating  the  furnace,  choose  a  situation  as  equidistant  from  the  registers  as 
possible,  so  that  the  pipes  may  be  of  nearly  equal  length,  and  branch  from  two  or 
more  sides  of  the  furnace. 

Secure  a  proper  foundation,  by  leveling  the  ground  on  which  the  furnace  is  to 
rest ;  and  dig  down  a  few  inches  preparatory  to  a  foundation  of  brick  work,  which 
should  cover  two  inches  larger  than  the  outer  walls.  Should  the  ground  be  soft 
or  spongy,  fill  it  with  gravel  or  hard  coal  ashes ;  if  it  prove  necessary  from  the 
lowness^of  the  cellar  to  sink  the  base  of  the  ash-pit  below  its  surface,  excavate  _  a 
trench  of  corresponding  depth,  the  width  of  which  shall  be  that  of  the  recess  in 
the  walls,  and  project  out  about  three  feet.  Commence  the  walls  as  shown  in  the 
ground  plan,  figure  1. 

Figure  1— Ground  Plan. 


\  I  / 


A  A  A— Outer  Walls. 

B  B  B  B— Space,  between  outer  and  inner  Walls,  two  inches  at  nearest  point 

C  C  C  C— Inner  Wall. 

D— Brick  covering  over  Cold  Air  Channel. 

E— Brick  covering  or  floor  from  large  Entrance  Door. 

F  F  F  F  F— Iron  Trench  Plates. 

G  G  G— Three  four-inch  Brick  Piers,  support  under  Trench  Plates. 

H  H— Space  between  Trench  Plates  and  base  of  Fire  Pot,  for  ingress  of  Cold  Air.    Four  and 

a  half  inches  for  Nos.  3  and  4  :  five  inches  for  No.  5  ;  six  inches  for  No.  6. 
I_Cast  iron  Ash-Pit,  or  Base  to  Furnace. 
J— Cold  Air  Channel. 
K— Set  back,  or  recess  in  front  Wall ;  for  Nos.  3  and  4,  thirty-three  inches  wide  inside,  ana 

eight  inches  deep.    For  Nos.  5  and  6,  thirty -seven  inches  wide,  and  twelve  inches  deep. 


CIIILSON'S  FURNACE. 


335 


The  outer  wall  should  be  four  inches  in  thickness ;  that  of  the  inner,  eight 
inches  from  the  base  to  the  trench  plates,  and  four  inches  above — made  in  the 
form  of  a  circle,  of  such  diameter  as  shall  leave  a  space  of  two  inches  between  it 
and  the  outer  wall  at  the  nearest  point.  Make  the  recess  in  the  walls  front  of  the 
door  as  shown  by  ground  plan,  No.  1,  and  of  the  dimensions  described  under 
same  plan.  Apertures  must  be  made  in  the  base  of  the  inner  wall,  as  shown  in 
plan  No.  1,  to  give  the  cold  air  free  ingress  into  the  space  between  the  walls, 
and  carry  off  the  heat  radiated  from  the  inside  wall  into  the  perforated  hot  air 
pipe,  and  also  to  prevent  the  outer  wall  becoming  hot  and  heating  the  cellar,  caus- 
ing a  waste  of  heat,  damage  to  vegetables,  etc. 

After  the  foundation  has  reached  the  height  of  the  furnace  base,  the  cold 
air  channel,  which  is  constructed  to  conduct  the  air  directly  to  the  space  be- 
tween the  inner  wall  and  the  cast  iron  ash-pit,  should  be  covered  by  means  of 
iron  bars  overlaid  with  brick. 

Figure  2— Sectional  View. 


SIZE  or  BRICK  WORK. 

No.  3—5-8  by  5-8,  outside.  I    No.  5—6-6  by  6-6.  outside. 

"    4—6  feet  by  (i  feet,  outside.  '      "    6 — 7  fett  by  7  feet,  outside. 
Outside  Walls,  four  incnes  thick,  for  all  sizes. 

Inside  Walls,  eight  inches  thick,  all  sizes,  to  Trench  Plates,  and  four  inches  above. 
Eight  apertures,  eight  inches  high  and  two  wide,  in  base  of  inner  wall,  for  the  passage  of 
air  bet  ween  walls. 

SIZE  or  COLD  AIR  CHANNELS. 

No.  3,  Equivalent  to  200  square  inches,  inside 

«    4,          "  "  240      "  «  « 

..      r.  ..  u    o.~»-         i.  ti  ti 


325 
400 


336  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

The  entrance  or  man-hole  door,  should  be  built  in  the  outer  wall,  as  shown 
by  ground  plan,  letter  E,  and  a  corresponding  opening  in  the  inner  wall,  for 
the  purpose  of  entrance.  On  a  level  with  the  base,  a  covering,  similar  to  that  of 
tiro  cold  air  channel,  should  be  placed  between  them  and  the  open  space  between 
walls,  closed  with  brick,  that  the  heat  from  the  chamber  may  not  escape  through 
the  openings. 

Construct  the  inner  wall,  as  shown  in  the  sectional  view,  No.  2,  allowing  its  line  to 
follow  outward,  somewhat  in  the  shape  of  the  pot,  for  four  or  five  courses,  grad- 
ually receding  until  within  two  inches  of  the  outside  wall ;  from  this  point  carry  it 
uprightly  to  the  level  of  the  dome  plate  ;  then  commence  to  draw  in  or  decrease 
its  size  in  the  form  of  an  arched  cone,  of  such  sweep,  that  when  opposite  the 
annular  chamber,  or  ring  of  the  furnace,  it  shall  have  a  space  of  four  inches 
between ;  carry  this  arched-shaped  wall  from  eight  to  twelve  inches  above  the 
furnace,  according  to  its  size,  then  place  iron  bars  across  covered  with  brick  ;  finish 
by  thoroughly  and  smoothly  plastering  the  walls  inside. 

The  outer  walls  are  to  be  carried  up  as  represented  in  the  drawing,  partially 
arched,  and  covered  like  the  others  ;  after  the  mason  work  has  reached  the  height 
from  which  it  is  desired  to  carry  the  hot  air  pipes  through  the  walls,  place  the  ends 
even  with  the  inner  wall,  and  build  them  into  it. 

Also  build  in  casings  of  sheet  iron  or  tin  in  front  of  the  clearing-out  pipe 
and  funnel,  through  both  walls — two  inches  larger  than  the  pipe,  running  through 
them  ;  the  ends  outside  are  of  course  to  be  stopped  with  caps,  in  one  of  which  a 
hole  is  made  to  admit  the  funnel. 

The  hot  air  pipes  should  be  conducted  from  the  highest  point  of  the  inner 
wall,  as  in  sectional  view,  through  the  arch  of  the  brick  work ;  from  which 
point  they  should  gradually  rise  to  the  registers  in  the  floor,  always  keeping  in 
view  the  fact  that  the  nearer  the  pipes  can  be  carried  to  a  perpendicular  line  from 
the  wall  of  the  furnace  to  the  apartment  above,  the  more  readily  and  economically 
is  heat  obtained. 

The  size  of  the  pipes  and  registers,  and  their  general  disposition,  is  a  matter  re- 
quiring the  best  judgment  of  the  mechanic  under  whose  supervision  they  come, 
and  are  determined  by  the  size,  position,  and  distance  of  the  apartment  from  the 
furnace,  and  can  not  be  subject  to  any  fixed  rule;  as  in  two  rooms  of  the  same 
dimensions,  we  often  use  pipes  and  registers  of  different  size,  owing  to  their  near- 
ness or  distance  from  the  furnace  in  a  horizontal  line — their  height  above  the 
basement — the  relative  position  of  other  pipes,  the  purposes  for  which  the  rooms 
are  to  be  used,  and  the  amount  of  heat  required,  &c.,  &c.  As  a  general  rule, 
however,  in  rooms  upon  the  first  floor,  whose  dimensions  are  equal  to  fifteen  feet 
square,  and  of  ordinary  height,  use  an  eight-inch  pipe,  and  registers  eight  by 
twelve  inches ;  twenty  feet  square,  ten-inch  pipe,  registers  nine  by  fourteen  inches ; 
twenty-five  feet  square,  twelve-inch  pipe,  registers  ten  by  sixteen,  or  twelve  by 
nineteen  inches.  For  halls  of  ordinary  size,  use  register  nine  by  fourteen  5  ten- 
inch  pipe.  Adopt  the  same  scale  in  rooms  of  different  capacity. 

If  pipes  or  hot  air  tubes  are  carried  into  apartments  above  those  of  the  first 
floor,  they  should  be  two  inches  smaller  in  size,  than  those  used  in  rooms  of  the 
same  capacity  below  ;  so  that,  should  a  lower  room  require  a  pipe  of  ten  inches  in 
diameter,  that  above  would  be  eight  inches,  and  still  higher,  six  inches  5  supposing 
each  room  to  be  of  the  same  size,  and  directly  above  the  first. 

In  all  hot  air  pipes  that  go  above  the  first  floor,  a  damper  should  be  placed  near 
the  exit  from  the  furnace,  and  kept  closed  when  not  in  use,  in  order  to  economize 
the  heat  that  would  otherwise  fill  the  pipes  when  the  registers  are  closed. 

It  is  often  expedient  to  heat  two  adjoining  rooms  separated  by  a  partition  5  in 
which  case,  it  is  our  custom  to  use  but  one  pipe  for  both ;  bringing  it  up  to  the 
partition,  and  placing  a  T  or  horizontal  pipe  across  the  top,  projecting  each  side, 
into  which  registers  are  to  be  inserted,  of  a  size  corresponding  with  the  rooms. 

In  double  parlors,  or  rooms  connected  by  sliding  or  folding  doors,  we  usually 
place  but  one  register,  near  their  common  opening,  in  case  it  is  intended  to  use 
both  apartments  at  once. 

In  many  instances,  it  is  required  to  heat  rooms  not  in  a  direct  line  of  communi- 
cation from  the  furnace,  and  in  which  it  seems  difficult  to  introduce  pipe  without 
marring  the  building,  or  exposing  them  to  view  in  their  passage  through  other 


CHILSON'S  FURNACE.  337 

room*.  In  such  cases  an  ingenious  mechanic  will  generally  surmount  the  appar- 
ent difficulty  by  taking  advantage  of  closets,  spaces  between  partitions,  chimney 
pieces,  &c.,  or,  if  either  are  impracticable,  by  carrying  the  pipes  upright  through 
the  corner  of  the  room  and  hiding  its  unsightly  appearance  by  finishing  in  front 
with  wood,  painting  it  in  representation  of  a  column,  or  in  such  a  manner  as  will 
best  suit  the  style  of  the  apartment.  As  a  rule,  however,  we  do  not  carry  pipes 
above  the  first  floor,  except  it  is  designed  to  heat  an  apartment  for  use  during  the 
day,  as  the  heat  from  the  hall  register  will  keep  the  chambers  comfortably  warmed 
by  leaving  the  doors  opened. 

The  smoke  pipe  should  be  carried  directly  to  the  nearest  flue,  and  should  it  be 
necessary  to  carry  it  horizontally  to  a  considerable  distance,  surround  it  by  a 
casing,  or  pipe  of  tin,  three  inches  larger  -in  diameter  than  tke  smoke  pipe  itself, 
and  the  waste  heat  that  radiates  from  the  smoke  pipe,  may  be  used  to  warm  any 
adjoining  apartment,  by  continuing  a  hot  air  pipe  into  the  room  and  inserting  a 
funnel  register  which  we  manufacture  for  that  purpose. 

The  cold  air  box  should  be  constructed  of  wood,  smooth-planed  inside  and  out 
Its  opening  should  be  from  the  north  or  west  side  of  the  building  ;  carry  it  along 
the  ceiling  to  the  furnace,  then  drop  it  perpendicularly  down  to  the  base  of  the 
cold  air  channel.  This  box  should  contain  a  damper  or  slide,  which  in  very  cold 
weather,  or  when  the  fire  is  first  kindling,  can  be  partially  closed  ;  but  so  ar- 
ranged that  it  shall  never  entirely  shut  out  the  air. 

In  speaking  of  a  wooden  cold  air  box,  we  do  not  by  any  means  consider  it  im- 
perative that  this  material  should  be  used  in  its  construction,  as  we  often  conduct 
the  air  in  a  brick  trench  covered  with  flat  stones,  smoothly  plastered  and  thor- 
oughly cemented,  below  the  level  of  the  ground.  This  method,  when  the  cellar 
is  dry,  has  the  advantage  of  permanence,  and  occupies  no  room  ;  but  it  is  an  ad- 
ditional expense  which  all  are  not  willing  to  incur,  and  is  not  reckoned  in  making 
furnace  estimates. 

Perforate  one  or  two  of  the  hot  air  pipes  with  holes,  two  inches  in  diameter,  in 
the  part  which  goes  between  the  walls,  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  off  the  heat 
that  is  collected  in  the  space  between. 

If  the  cellar  is  wet,  carry  out  the  base  on  which  the  walls  are  to  stand  one 
foot  larger  than  th<|  walls  themselves ;  use  hydraulic  or  Roman  cement  in  its  con- 
struction ;  lay  the  brick  two  courses,  and  place  a  liberal  supply  of  cement  between ; 
then,  after  the  furnace  walls  are  erected,  carry  up  a  barrier  or  guard  wall  from 
the  edge  of  the  brick  base,  a  few  inches  above  the  level  of  the  ground,  and  fill  the 
intervening  space  between  the  barriers  and  the  outer  furnace  wall  with  cement  or 
clay  ;  adopt  also  the  same  precaution  around  the  trench  ;  in  fact,  form  a  complete 
casing  of  brick,  thoroughly  cemented,  all  round  the  base  of  the  furnace,  which 
will  prove  a  sufficient  guaranty  from  water. 

In  public  halls,  or  buildings  where  but  a  single  register  is  required,  carry  np 
the  inside  wall  to  a  perfect  arch  and  lead  the  hot  air  pipe  directly  from  tlie  top, 
and  use  a  hot  air  grate  without  valves,  of  the  following  sizes  : — 

No.  3  Furnaces— Grates  22  inches  in  diameter,  and  Hot  Air  Pipes  18  inches  in  diameter 
«     4         .1                K      24      "                  "           "         "  "      21      "  » 

it     5          ii  ic      28      "  '«  "         "  "      24      "  " 

it     5         a  "      32      "  ii  ii         u  ii      27      «  u 

It  is  frequently  desirable  to  have  square  or  parallelogram  shaped  grates  instead 
'  round  ;  when  this  is  the  case,  use  tl 
will  be  equivalent  to  those  given  above. 

In  speaking  of  grates  without  valves,  we  wish  it  especially  understood,  that  in 
no  instance  where  but  a  single  pipe  is  taken  from  the  furnace,  should  registers 
with  valves  be  used,  or  dampers  placed  in  the  hot  air  pipes ;  but  the  amount  of 
heat  required,  should  be  regulated  by  the  fire  itself;  or,  if  an  outlet/  be  deemed 
expedient,  carry  it  off  by  means  of  another  pipe,  into  an  adjoining  apartment. 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  USING  CHILSON's  PATENT  WARMING  AND  VENTILATING  APPARATUS. 

1st.  In  building  a  fire  in  the  furnace,  open  the  damper  in  the  smoke-pipe. 

2d.  Clean  out  the  old  coal  and  ashes  from  the  ash-pit,  and  also  from  the  lever- 
grate  ;  sift  the  old  coal,  ashes,  &c.,  and  preserve  the  coal  siftings  for  covering  over 
the  fresh  fire. 


338  SCOOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

3d.  Always  keep  the  ash-pit,  under  the  grate,  clear  of  ashes ;  this  done,  there 
is  no  possibility  of  burning  out  the  grate. 

4th.  Kindle  the  fire  with  a  small  quantity  of  either  wood,  bark,  or  charcoal. 
Dry  hard  wood  preferable. 

5th.  When  the  kindlings  are  well  charred,  put  on  a  small  quantity  of  white  ash 
tool,  and  when  well  ignited,  (but  before  burning  up  clear,)  add  fresh  coal,  not  ex- 
ceeding six  inches  in  depth. 

6th.  Close  both  the  feed  and  ash-pit  doors,  also  the  small  register  in  the  ash-pit 
door,  then  close  the  damper,  in  the  smoke  pipe,  as  far  as  practicable  to  cause  the 
fuel  to  be  consumed  slowly — or  on  the  air-tight  principle  ;  this  always  to  be  done 
before  the  coal  burns  up  clear. 

7th.  Cover  over  the  fresh  coal  fire  in  moderate  weather,  with  fine  coal  and  the 
old  coal  sittings,  keeping  the  draft  in  the  smoke  pipe  well  shut  off;  in  this  way,  a 
fire  may  be  kept  for  a  great  length  of  time  without  replenishing ;  thus  greatly 
economizing  in  the  consumption  of  fuel ;  but  in  extremely  cold  weather,  do  not 
cover  over  the  fire  with  fine  coal,  but  keep  it  bright,  always  checking  the  draft  to 
keep  the  fire  clear  of  clinker. 

8th.  Always  have  a  large  supply  of  cold  air  passing  into  the  furnace.  At  no 
time  have  the  damper,  in  the  cold  air-box,  fully  closed  ;  even  in  very  cold  weather 
it  should  be  at  least  one-half  open.  The  milder  the  weather,  the  more  fresh  air 
to  be  admitted  for  ventilation. 

9th.  Never  allow  all  the  registers  to  be  closed  at  the  same  time ;  and  if  tho 
rooms  become  too  warm,  regulate  and  lessen  the  fire,  and  let  there  be  constantly 
a  free  circulation  of  warm  air  from  some,  or  all  the  registers  ;  this  is  essential  for 
the  ventilation  as  well  as  warming  of  the  rooms. 

10th.  Do  not  suffer  the  fire  during  the  day,  to  get  so  low,  before  replenishing, 
as  to  require  kindlings  to  bring  it  up. 

llth.  Where  there  is  provision  made  for  ventilation  in  the  rooms,  and  venti- 
ducts extending  down  to  the  floor,  with  apertures  at  the  top  and  bottom,  close  the 
apertures  at  the  top,  and  open  those  at  the  bottom,  until  the  rooms  become  well 
warmed  and  ventilated,  and  when  there  is  too  much  warmth  in  the  rooms  open 
the  upper  apertures,  permitting  the  heat  to  run  off,  until  the  room  becomes  com- 
fortable, then  close  the  upper  apertures ;  never  open  the  windows  or  doors  in 
cold  weather  to  cool  or  to  attempt  to  ventilate  the  rooms  ;  if  done,  it  will  prevent 
the  action  or  draft  in  the  foul  air  ventiducts;  there  is  also  a  liability  to  those  sit- 
ting near  the  windows  or  doors  to  take  cold,  in  consequence  of  the  cold  air  falling 
upon  their  heads.  The  above  directions  are  simple  and  easily  followed,  and  if 
strictly  adhered  to,  will  be  found  very  perfect  in  operation,  and  economical  in  the 
consumption  of  fuel,  keeping  the  fire  ignited  a  long  time  without  replenishing,  and 
giving  out  a  large  quantity  of  fresh,  healthful,  warm  air,  perfectly  free  from  red' 
not  iron  heat. 

These  ventilating  flues  or  ventiducts,  should  always  be  located  in  an  opposite  cor- 
ner of  the  room,  from  that  at  which  the  heated  air  enters,  and  should  be  carried 
up  separately  to  the  roof  of  the  building.  They  should  be  fitted  at  the  top  and 
bottom  with  a  door  or  valve,  whose  capacity  should  be  equal  to  that  of  the  venti- 
duct into  which  it  opens. 

The  best  material  for  their  construction  is,  thoroughly  seasoned,  sound  pine 
boards,  planed  smooth  on  the  inner  surface,  and  put  together  with  iron  screws. 

It  is  indispensible  to  attach  an  ejecting  ventilator  to  the  ventiducts  at  their  ter- 
minus. In  this  way,  down  blasts  are  obviated,  the  rain  excluded,  and,  whenever 
there  is  a  wind,  no  matter  what  its  direction,  it  produces,  in  a  properly  construct- 
ed ejector,  an  active  upward  current. 

The  arear  of  the  flues  for  admitting  fresh  air,  should  exceed  those  of  its  exit 
by  about  twenty-five  per  cent. 


BUSHNELL'S  FURNACE.  339 

BUSHNELL'S  PATENT  HOT-AIR  FURNACE. 

Manufactured  by  Ezra  dark,  Jr.,  61  Front  street,  Hartford, 


BUSHNELL'S  FURNACE  is  the  only  one  constructed  on  strictly  scientific 
principles,  and  bears  any  test  either  of  theory  or  practice.  Scientific  gentle- 
men have  endorsed  its  excellence,  and  successful  practice  approves  and  con- 
firms their  recommendation. 

The  radiating  part  of  this  furnace,  being  that  portion  which  diffuses  the 
heat,  is  distinguished  from  all  others  from  the  fact  that  the  cold  air  is  passed 
into  the  furnace  chamber  between  horizontal  cast  iron  pipes  or  tubes,  inside 
of  which  the  hot  gas  of  the  fire  is  circulating,  and  communicating  its  heat,  as 
it  passes  off  to  the  chimney  ;  so  that  the  cold  air  is  brought  in  direct  contact 
with  the  heated  iron,  and  is  actually  heated  before  it  reaches  the  inner  cham- 
ber of  the  furnace.  While  the  cold  air  is  passing  one  way  to  be  heated  (be- 
tween the  heated  iron  pipes)  the  hot  gas  of  the  fire  is  passing  the  other  way 
to  be  cooled,  and  thus  the  mean  difference  of  temperature  is  kept  the  greatest 
possible  at  every  point.  The  greatest  amount  of  heat  will  be  communicated 
in  this  way,  by  the  least  amount  of  iron  surface  ;  and  as  the  radiator  has  a 
very  large  surface,  it  follows  that  more  heat  is  extracted  (from  a  given  amount 
of  fuel)  than  by  any  other  invention  yet  offered  to  the  public. 

This  furnace  is  so  constructed  that  it  clears  itself  of  ashes  and  soot,  never 
requiring  to  be  disturbed,  and  consequently  requires  not  as  much  care  as  an 
ordinary  fire.  A  child  can  take  care  of  it  when  in  use,  and  it  can  stand  from 
season  to  season,  untouched,  without  trouble  or  expense,  and  be  at  any  mo- 
ment ready  for  immediate  use. 

Two  kinds  of  pots  are  offered  by  the  manufacturer,  for  use  with  this  fur- 
nace ;  one  similar  to  the  most  approved  forms  now  in  use,  the  other  entirely 
different,  and  the  invention  of  I)R.  BUSHNELL.  It  differs  from  all  others  in 
allowing  the  fire  to  be  stirred  above  the  grate,  and  through  the  opening  by 
which  ttie  coal  is  entered.  This  throws  up  the  dead  coals  and  cinders,  which 
are  then  easily  removed,  and,  as  the  grate  need  never  be  dropped,  the  dirty 
process  of  riddling  is  avoided.  No  ashes  escape,  and  the  cloud  of  dust  which 
usually  envelopes  the  tender  in  all  other  furnaces,  is  no  where  seen  in  this, 
and  no  uncleanliness  results  from  renewing  the  fire.  The  fire  may  be  stirred 
and  cleaned  when  it  is  in  full  action,  as  well  as  at  any  other  time  ;  the  coals 
will  never  rattle  down  to  choke  the  fire,  but  will  of  necessity,  by  this  method 
of  stirring,  always  be  thrown  up  into  a  light  open  cinder,  giving  free  passage 
to  the  draft  and  facilitating  combustion. 

This  furnace  is  offered  in  the  entire  confidence  that  it  is  the  best  ever 
manufactured,  and  this  bold  assertion  is  warranted  and  proved  by  the  favora- 
ble testimony  of  those  who  have  used  it.  A  TRIAL  is  ALL  THE  PROOF  RE- 
QUIRED. 

Three  sizes  of  furnaces  are  made,  viz.  :  No.  1  with  17  inch  pot;  No.  2 
with  20  inch  pot;  No.  3  with  24  inch  pot;  which  are  now  for  sale  in  most 
of  the  larger  cities  and  towns  in  the  northern  states. 

Orders  for  Bushneirs  Furnaces  will  be  promptly  attended  to,  on  application 
y  mail  or  otherwise,  to  EZRA  CLARK,  Jr.,  Hartford,  Conn. 


340 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


DOUBLE  FIRE-PLACE  FOR  WARMING  AND  VENTILATION. 

Tne  following  plan  of  warming  and  ventilating  a  school-room  is  re- 
commended by  Mr.  George  B.  Emerson  in  the  School  and  Schoolmaster. 
The  position  of  the  proposed  fire-place  may  be  seen  in  the  Plans  of 
School-rooms  by  the  same  eminent  teacher,  published  on  page  50  of  this 
work. 

Warming. — In  a  suitable  position, 
pointed  out  in  the  plates,  near  the  door, 
let  a  common  brick  fireplace  be  built.  Let 
this  be  inclosed,  on  the  back  and  on  each 
side,  by  a  casing  of  brick,  leaving,  be- 
tween the  fireplace  and  the  casing,  a  space 
of  four  or  five  inches,  which  will  be  heat- 
ed through  the  back  and  jambs.  Into  this 
space  let  the  air  be  admitted  from  beneath 
by  a  box  24  inches  wide  and  6  or  8  deep, 
leading  from  the  external  atmosphere  by 
an  opening  beneath  the  front  door,  or  at 
some  other  convenient  place.  The  brick 
casing  should  be  continued  up  as  high  as 
six  or  eight  inches  above  the  top  of  the 
fireplace,  where  it  may  open  into  the  room 
by  lateral  orifices,  to  be  commanded  by 
iron  doors,  through  which  the  heated  air 
will  enter  the  room.  If  these  are  lower, 
part  of  the  warm  air  will  find  its  way  into 
the  fireplace.  The  brick  chimney  should 


Fireplace. 


A.  Horizontal  section.  B.  Perpendicular  section,  c.  Brick  walls,  4  inches  thick. 
d.  Air  space  between  the  walls,  e.  Solid  fronts  of  masonry.  /.  Air  box  for  supply  of  fresh 
air,  extending  beneath  the  floor  to  the  front  door.  e.  Openings  on  the  sides  of  the  fire- 
place,  for  the  heated  air  to  pass  into  the  room.  h.  Front  of  the  fireplace  and  mantelpiece. 
t.  Iron  smoke  flue,  8  inches  diameter,  j.  Space  between  the  fireplace  and  wall,  k  Par- 
tition wall.  I.  Floor. 

rise  at  least  two  or  three  feet  above  the  hollow  back,  and  may  be  surmounted 
by  a  flat  iron,  soap-stone,  or  brick  top,  with  an  opening  for  a  smoke-pipe, 
which  may  be  thence  conducted  to  any  part  of  the  room.  The  smoke-pipe 
should  rise  a  foot,  then  pass  to  one  side,  and  then  over  a  passage,  to  the  oppo- 
site extremity  of  the  room,  where  it  should  ascend  perpendicularly,  and  issue 
above  the  roof.  The  fireplace  should  be  provided  with  iron  doors,  by  which 
it  may  be  completely  closed. 

The  advantages  of  this  double  fireplace  are,  1.  the  fire,  being  made  against 
brick,  imparts  to  the  air  of  the  apartment  none  of  the  deleterious  qualities 
which  are  produced  by  a  common  iron  stove,  but  gives  the  pleasant  heat  of  an 
open  fireplace  ;  2.  none  of  the  heat  of  the  fuel  will  be  lost,  as  the  smoke-pipe 
may  be  extended  far  enough  to  communicate  nearly  all  the  heat  contained  in 
the  smoke  ;  3.  the  current  of  air  heated  within  the  hollow  back,  and  constant- 
ly pouring  into  the  room,  will  diffuse  an  equable  heat  throughout  every  part ; 
4.  the  pressure  of  the  air  of  the  room  will  be  constantly  outward,  little  cold 
will  enter  by  cracks  and  windows,  and  the  fireplace  will  have  no  tendency  to 
smoke  ;  5.  by  means  of  the  iron  doors,  the  fire  may  be  completely  controlled, 
increased  or  diminished  at  pleasure,  with  the  advantages  of  an  air-tight  stove. 
For  that  purpose,  there  must  be  a  valve  or  slide  near  the  bottom  of  one  of  the 
doors. 

If,  instead  of  this  fireplace,  a  common  stove  be  adopted,  it  should  be  placed 
above  the  air-passage,  which  may  be  commanded  by  a  valve  or  register  in  th? 
floor,  so  as  to  admit  or  exclude  air. 


SCHOOL  FURNITURE. 

IN  the  construction  and  arrangement  of  the  furniture  of  a  school, 
both  for  pupils  and  teachers,  regard  must  be  had  to  the  following 
particulars  : 

1.  The  varying  size  of  the  occupant;  so  that  not  one  shall  be  sub- 
jected to  any  awkward,  inconvenient,  or  unhealthy  position  of  the  limbs, 
chest,  or  spine. 

2.  The  grade  of  the  school,  the  occupations  of  the  pupils,  and  the 
methods  of  instruction,  so  that  the  objects  aimed  at  may  be  secured  in 
the  best  manner.     A  school  composed  of  very  young  children,  another 
in  which  drawing  and  sewing  receive  special  attention,  a  third  con- 
ducted on  the  monitorial  plan,  a  fourth  embracing  a  large  number  of 
pupils  in  a  hall  for  study  and  lectures,  under  one  principal  teacher,  with 
class-rooms,  for  recitations  by  assistants,  and  a  fifth  in  which  the  pupils 
are  classified  under  permanent  teachers  in  separate  rooms,  will  require 
different  furniture  and  arrangements. 

3.  Facility  of  access,  so  that  each  pupil  may  go  to  and  from  his  seat, 
with  the  least  possible  noise,  inconvenience,  and  waste  of  time  to  him- 
self and  others. 

4.  The  supervision  of  the  whole  school  by  the  teacher,  with  a  free 
passage  for  him  to  every  pupil,  as  well  as  every  facility  for  the  ac- 
commodation of  his  books  of  reference,  and  the  use  of  apparatus  and 
diagrams,  and  his  collective  and  class  teaching. 

5.  Facility  for  sweeping  and  keeping  the  room  neat. 

The  following  diagrams  and  suggestions  as  to  the  details  of  con- 
struction and  arrangements,  will  enable  committees  to  furnish  their 
school  and  class-rooms  with  appropriate  furniture,  which  will  answer 
the  above  conditions. 

The  wood  portion  of  all  school  furniture  should  be  made  of  clear, 
hard,  well-seasoned  material,  like  cherry,  mahogany,  or  birch;  the  sur- 
faces worked  smooth,  the  edges  and  corners  nicely  rounded,  and  all  the 
joints,  as  far  as  practicable,  firmly  morticed. 

Each  pupil  should  be  allowed  a  desk  with  a  top  surface  at  least  two 
feet  long  and  eighteen  inches  wide,  with  a  shelf,  box,  or  drawer  to 
receive  books,  &c. 

The  top  surface  of  the  desk  should  incline  one  inch  in  a  foot  toward 
the  front  edge,  except  three  inches  of  the  most  distant  portion,  which 
should  be  level.  Along  the  front  edge  of  the  level  portion  should  run 
a  groove,  a  quarter  of  an  inch  deep,  to  prevent  pencils  from  rolling  off; 
and  on  the  opposite  side  an  opening  to  receive  a  slate,  and  another  for 
an  inkstand,  or  a  permanently  fixed  cast-iron  box  with  a  lid,  in  which  a 


342  SCHOOL  FURNITURE. 

movable  ink-well  may  be  inserted.     There  should  be  no  raised  ledge  on 
the  front  edge. 

The  shelf  should  be  about  two  thirds  as  wide  as  the  desk,  and  decline 
a  little  from  the  front.  The  opening  to  receive  the  books  should  be 
about  four  inches.  A  box,  of  which  the  top  of  the  desk  forms  the  lid,  is 
a  greater  protection  from  dust,  but  the  opening  and  shutting  of  the  lid 
is  a  frequent  source  of  noise.  A  portfolio  case  be  attached  to  the  insiie 
of  the  lid,  to  receive  drawings  and  manuscripts. 

The  standards  to  support  the  desk  can  be  made  of  wood  or  cast-iron. 
The  latter  are  to  be  preferred,  because,  without  adding  much  to  the 
cost,  they  have  more  strength  and  durability,  and  while  presenting  a 
variety  of  elegant  forms  they  can  be  so  curved  as  to  admit  of  easy 
access  to  the  seat,  and  facilitate  the  use  of  the  broom  in  sweeping.  A 
variety  of  patterns  are  presented  in  the  following  pages. 

When  made  of  wood  the  standards  should  be  firmly  fastened  by  a 
strong  tenon  into  the  sleepers  of  the  floor  or  into  a  shoe,  which  can  be 
made  of  cast-iron.  The  shoe  can  be  made  fast  to  the  floor  by  numerous 
screws. 

To  secure  the  greatest  firmness,  the  standards  should  not  be  more 
than  four  feet  apart,  and  should  be  strengthened  by  bars  extending 
between  every  two,  or  braces  from  the  center  of  the  standard  to  an 
equal  distance  on  the  shelf,  or  back  of  the  desk  above.  For  these  pur- 
poses a  socket  for  the  bar  or  brace,  should  be  cut  in  the  middle  of  the 
standard. 

The  several  parts  of  the  standard  must  be  adapted  to  their  intended 
use.  The  top  requires  to  be  cast  with  a  flange  or  stays  crossing  each 
other  at  right  angles,  to  screw  to  the  wood-work  of  the  desk  or  seat  for 
which  it  is  intended.  When  it  is  practicable,  the  standard  should  re- 
ceive the  wood-work  into  a  socket  arm,  or  lip,  so  as  not  to  admit  of  being 
displaced  by  any  rough  usage,  which  will  not  at  the  same  time  shatter 
the  iron.  Several  extra  holes  should  be  drilled  in  the  standard  to  re- 
ceive additional  screws,  as  the  old  ones  from  time  to  time  get  loose. 

The  height  of  the  standards,  whether  for  desk  or  seat,  will  depend  on 
the  size  of  the  pupils  who  are  to  occupy  them. 

Every  pupil,  young  or  old,  should  be  provided  with  a  chair  (or  bench 
having  the  seat  hollowed  like  an  ordinary  chair)  just  high  enough 
to  allow,  when  properly  occupied,  the  feet  to  rest  on  the  floor  without 
the  muscles  of  the  thigh  being  pressed  hard  upon  the  front  edge  of  the 
seat. 

In  all  cases,  except  in  class-rooms  fitted  up  specially  for  writing  or 
drawing  lessons,  or  when  their  occupancy  will  not  exceed  fifteen  or 
twenty  minutes  without  a  change  from  a  sitting  to  a  standing  posture, 
the  seats  should  be  provided  with  a  support  for  the  muscles  of  the  back, 
and,  as  a  general  rule,  especially  for  the  majority  of  pupils,  this  support 
should  rise  above  the  shoulder  blades,  and  should  in  all  cases  incline 
back  as  it  rises,  one  inch  in  every  foot. 

The  height  of  the  seat  from  the  floor,  and  the  width,  will  depend  on 


SCHOOL  FURNITURE. 


343 


the  age,  or  rather  the  size  of  the  pupils ;  and,  in  providing  seats  for 
them,  regard  must  be  had  to  the  grade  of  the  school,  and  the  varying 
size  of  the  children.  For  a  primary  school,  composed  of  children  from 
four,  and  even  three,  years  of  age  to  eight  or  ten,  the  height  should 
vary  from  eight  to  twelve  inches,  and  the  width  from  six  to  ten 
inches ;  and  for  a  school  for  pupils  ranging  from  ten  to  sixteen  years 
of  age,  the  height  of  the  seats  should  vary  from  ten  to  seventeen 
inches,  and  the  width  from  eight  to  thirteen  inches. 

To  provide  against  the  evil  of  seats  too  high  for  the  smallest  children, 
planks  or  suitable  platforms  should  be  furnished,  to  enable  the  teacher 
to  seat  that  class  of  children  properly,  so  that  the  feet  can  rest  on 
the  floor.  If  the  children  vary  in  age,  and  consequent  size,  in  different 
seasons  of  the  year  an  extra  number  of  seats,  both  high  arid  low,  should 
be  provided  to  meet  the  varying  demand.  Let  the  seats  which  are  not 
required  for  immediate  use  be  carefully  stored  away  in  the  attic,  and 
their  places  supplied  by  those  which  are. 

Great  difference  of  opinion  and  practice  prevails  as  to  the  dimensions 
of  the  seats  and  desks  for  pupils  of  different  ages.  The  following  scale 
has  generally  been  followed,  in  plans  drawn  or  approved  by  the  author 
of  this  treatise.  For  schools  composed  of  children  of  all  ages,  from  four 
years  and  under  to  seventeen  years,  eight  different  sizes  have  been 
adopted— and  the  number  of  each  size  has  varied  with  the  number  of 
pupils.  The  aim  has  been  to  secure  for  each  pupil  an  average  space 
on  the  floor,  of  two  feet  long  by  twenty-six  inches  wide,  besides  the 
space  occupied  by  teachers'  desks,  an  open  area  of  two  or  three  feet  around 
the  room,  and  an  aisle  16  inches  wide  between  each  range  of  desks. 


SEAT  OR  CHAIR. 

DESK. 

NUMBER. 

Height  from  floor  to 
Front  edge. 

WiJth 
to  the 
Support. 

Height   from  floor  to 
Front  edge. 

Width 
of  top. 

inches. 

inches. 

inches. 

inches 

1 

9i  to  10 

9 

194  to  20 

11 

2 

104  to   11 

9A 

204  to  21 

12 

3 

12 

10 

22 

13 

4 

13 

104 

23 

14 

5 

14 

11 

24 

15 

6 

15 

Hi 

25 

16 

7 

Ml 

W 

26£ 

17 

8 

17    to   174 

12 

274  to  28 

18 

The  scale  of  dimensions  adopted  in  Wales'  Improved  School  Furniture,  will  be 
found  on  page  364,  and  in  Ross'  American  School  Furniture,  on  page  368.  The 
following  table  is  taken  from  "  Richsons"1  School  Builders  Guide." 


FORM 
HEIGHT. 

3. 

BR'DTH. 

DESI 
HEIGHT. 

cs. 
BREADTH. 

DESK 
TOPS. 

ac 

Lower 
Class. 

Upr. 
Ciss. 

Lwr 
Cis*. 

Upper 
Classes. 

Lower 
Classes. 

Flap. 

Ink 
Brd. 

Slope. 

ft    in  'ft     in 

in 

in. 

ft.   in. 

ft.    in 

<l    in 

in. 

Minutes    of     Committee     of; 

Uin    irr 

Council.  1839-40  pp.  54,  55.  $ 

1    4 

9 

.  . 

2    6 

.  .  . 

1    0 

3  \ 

'foot. 

Battersea  Village  School,  from  ) 
a  sketch  by  Mr.  Griffiths  .  .  \ 
National  Society's  Monthly  Pa-  i 
per.  No.  XVIII,  p.  11  $ 

1    1 

1    6 

1    2 

8 
64 

•• 

2    6 
2    6 

2    0 

1    5 
0    9 

3 

3in.   in 
1ft.  5  in. 

British  and  Foreign  School  So-  ; 
ciety,  Plain  Directions,  p.  14.  \ 

1    4 

... 

6 

2   4 

0    9 

.. 



Manchester  National  Schools.  . 

1  44 

l  24 

9 

9 

2    6 

2    44 

1    1 

3i 

Uin.   in 
"foot 

344 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


GALLERY  AND  FURNITURE  FOR  INFANT  AND  PRIMARY  SCHOOLS. 

The  gallery,  or  a  succession  of  seats  rising  one  above  the  other,  on  which  the 
children  can  be  gathered  at  suitable  times  for  simultaneous  exercises,  such  as 
•inging,  lessons  on  real  objects,  pictures,  simple  operations  of  mental  arithmetic, 
&c.,  has  been  found  an  economical  arrangement,  in  respect  to  space  and  expense, 
in  schools  for  a  large  number  of  very  young  children,  variously  modified  ;  it  is  used 
in  Great  Britain,  not  only  in  infant  and  primary  schools,  but  in  national  schools 
of  the  highest  grade  as  to  the  age  and  proficiency  of  the  pupils,  for  assembling  the 
whole  school  for  lectures,  or  for  the  collective  teaching  of  large  classes  hi 
writing,  drawing,  singing,  and  dictation. 

The  common  mode,  of  constructing  benches  without  backs,  and  without  regard 
to  the  size  of  the  pupils,  for  six  or  eight  young  children,  or  even  a  larger  number, 
has  nothing  to  recommend  it  but  economy,  and  not  even  that,  when  the  waste  of 
the  teacher's  time,  in  discipline  caused  by  the  children's  discomfort,  is  considered. 

But  the  opposite  extreme,  of  separate  chairs  for  each  child,  especially  if  the 
chairs  are  set  far  apart  for  the  purpose  of  preventing  all  communication  and 
to  secure  quiet,  is  not  therefore  the  best  mode  of  seating  a  primary  school.  The 
social  disposition  of  young  children  should  be  regarded,  and  their  seats,  whether 
the  old  fashioned  form  with  the  "  new  fangled  back,"  or  the  neat  chair  with  back 
and  arms,  should  be  contiguous,  so  that  two  can  be  seated  near  each  other. 

Even  the  youngest  pupils  should  be  provided  with  a  desk,  or  with  some 
facility  for  using  the  slate  in  drawing  and  printing.  In  the  absence  of  a  desk 
for  each  child,  a  leaf  with  slates  inserted,  or  painted  black,  should  be  hung 
low  against  the  wall  for  the  use  of  primary  classes. 


PRIMARY  SCHOOL  BENCH. 

A  movable  bench  for  more  than  two  pupils  is  an  objectionable  article  of 
school  furniture ;  but  if  introduced  at  all, 


the  above  cut  represents  a  style  of  this  article  which  combines  economy  and 
convenience.  The  back  is  inclined  slightly  from  a  perpendicular,  and  the 
seat  is  hollowed.  The  scholars  are  separated  by  a  compartment,  or  box,  A, 
which  serves  as  a  rest  for  the  arm,  and  a  place  of  deposit  for  books. 

GALLERY  AND  SAND  DESK  FOR  PRIMARY  AND  INFANT  SCHOOLS. 

For  very  small  children  a  Gallery  consist- 
ing of  a  succession  of  seats  rising  above 
each  other,  varying  in  height  from  seven  to 
nine  inches,  and  provided  with  a  support  for 
the  back.  This  arrangement,  in  large 
schools,  affords  great  facility  for  instruction 
in  music  and  all  simultaneous  exercises. 

The  Sand  Desk  having  a  trench  (b)  paint-   • 
ed  black,  to  contain  a  thin  layer  of  sand,  in 
which  to  trace  letters  and  rude  attempts  at 
imitating  forms,  was  originally  much  resorted  to  with  the 
young  classes,  in  schools  educated  on  the  Lancasterian  or 
Mutual  system.     This  style  of  desk  is  still  used  in  the 
primary  schools  of  the  New  York  Public  School  Society, 
but  very  much  improved  by    Mott's    Cast  Iron  Scroll 
Stanchions  and  Revolving  Pivot  Chair.     Every  scholar 
is  furnished  with  a  slate,  which  is  deposited  in  the  opening 
a)  in  the  top  of  the  desk. 


PRIMARY  SCHOOL  FURNITURE. 


345 


The  following  cut,  Fig.  4,  represents  a  section  of  a  gallery  recommended  in  a 
memorandum  of  the  Committee  of  Council  on  Education. 


Fio.  4. 


Fig.  5  represents  a  large  gallery  in  the  lecture-room  of  Borough  Road  School  of 
the  British  and  Foreign  School  Society ;  and  Fig.  6,  a  small  gallery  in  the  cor- 
ner of  a  class-room  in  the  same  school. 


FIG.  5. 


FIG.  6. 


Figure  7  represents  a  Closing  Gallery,  designed  for  small  rooms.  Two  steps, 
I  b,  are  fixed,  and  two,  a  a,  are  made  on  rollers,  and  when  out  of  use  are 
I  ushed  under  b  b.  When  used,  they  are  kept  in  their  place  by  a  bolt  to  the  floor. 


346 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


DESKS  AND  SEATS  OF  WOOD. 

The  following  cuts  exhibit  the  cheapest  mode  of  constructing  a  desk  and  seat 
of  wood,  for  one  or  two  pupils,  the  front  part  of  the  desk,  constituting  the  back  or 
support  of  the  next  seat.  The  height  of  the  desk  may  vary  from  28  to  29  inches 

Fig.  8. 


Fig.  9. 


from  the  floor  to  the  front  edge  of  the  top,  for  the  oldest  pupils,  to  20  to  21  inches 

for  the  youngest.     The  corresponding  seat  may  vary  from  17  to  18  inches,  to  9-g- 

to  10  inches  from  the  floor.     The  top  of  the  desk  and  seat  should  be  two  feet  long 

for  each  pupil.     The   upper  surface  (a,)  except  about   three 

inches  (6)  of  the  desk,  should  slope  one  inch  in  a  foot,  and 

may  vary  in  width,  from  18  to  12  inches.     The  level  portion 

of  the  desk  has  a  grove  (a)  running  along  the  line  of  the  slope, 

to  prevent  pencils  and  pens  from  rolling  off*,  and  an  opening  b 

to  receive  a  slate,  and  an  opening  c,  (at  the  end,  if  the  desk  is 

for  one  pupil,  and  in  the  center,  if  for  two  pupils,)  to  receive 

an  ink  well,  or  box  for  an  ink  well,  with  a  cover  or  lid.     The 

seat  slopes  a  little  from  the  edge.     The  standard,  of  the  desk 

and  seat  are  curved,  so  as  to  facilitate  sweeping  and  getting  in 

and  out.     The  standards  may  be  set  in  a  shoe,  as  shown  on 

page  369,  or  made  firm  to  the  floor  by  cleats.     Each  desk  is 

furnished  with  a  shelf,  for  books,  maps,  &o. 

Fig.  10  is  a  section  of  a  desk  for  two,  with  a  chair  for  one  pupil,  on  a  standard 
of  wood. 

Fig.  10. 


1-0 


The  following  cut  (Fig.  1 0)  represents  a  range  of  seven  desks  and  seats,  divided 
by  a  partition  (a)  of  matched  boards,  extending  from  the  floor  to  three  inches  abova 

Fig.  11. 


the  surface  of  the  desk.  The  partition  gives  great  firmness  to  each  desk,  and  sep- 
arates each  scholar  more  effectually  than  an  aisle.  The  lowest  seat  is  nine  inches, 
and  the  chair,  to  the  leaf  desk  (e,)  is  17^  inches  from  the  floor.  The  front  edge  of 
the  lowest  desk  (d)  is  19^,  and  that  of  the  highest  (c)  is  28^  inches  from  the  floor. 


IMPROVED  SCHOOL  FURNITURE. 


347 


HARTFORD  SCHOOL  DESK  AND  SEAT. 

The  following  cut  (Fig.  1,)  represents  a  style  of  school  desk,  with  a  seat 
attached,  which  has  been  extensively  introduced  into  village  and  country 
districts  in  Rhode  Island,  and  the  neighborhood  of  Hartford,  and  is  recom- 
mended wherever  a  rigid  economy  must  be  observed. 

Fig.  1. 


The  end  piece,  or  supports,  both  of  the  seat  and  desk,  are  cast  iron,  and  the 
wood  work  is  attached  by  screws.     They  are  made  for  one  or  two  scholars, 
and  of  eight  sizes,  giving  a  seat  from  ten  inches  to  seventeen,  and  a  desk  at  the 
edge  next  to  the  scholar,  from  seventeen  to  twenty-six  inches  from  the  floor. 
Fig.  3.  Fig.  2. 

Each  desk  is  fitted  up 

with  a  glass  ink-well 

(Fig.  2,)  set  firmly  into 

the  desk,  and  covered 

with  a  lid.  The  ink-well 

may  be  set  into  a  cast 

iron  box  (Fig.  3,)  having 

a  cover  ;  the  box  being 

let  in  and  screwed  to 

the  desk,  and  the  ink-well  being  removable  for 

convenience  in  filling,  cleaning,  and  emptying 

in  cold  weather. 


The  desk  can  be  used,  by  de- 
taching the  support  for  the  seat, 
with  a  convenient  school-chair, 
made  in  the  style  represented  in 
cut  (Fig.  4,)  or  in  any  other  style. 


The  cost  of  a  desk  and  seat  for  two  scholars,  perfectly  fitted  up,  varies  irom 
fl  37ito$l  50  per  scholar. 

Manufactured  by  Messrs.  Allen  if  Reed,  Jfos.  37  and  38  Pearl  street,  Hartford. 


348 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


MOTT'S  SCHOOL  CHAIR  AND  DESK. 

The  following  minute  description  of  Mott's  Patent  Revolving  Pivoi 
Chair,  and  cast  iron  Scroll  Stanchions  for  School  Desks,  is  gathered 
from  a  circular  of  the  patentee : 

The  seat  of  the  chair  is  of  wood :  all  the  other  parts,  of  cast  iron.  The  desk 
stanchions  are  adjusted  to  the  height  of  the  chair — in  the  following  scale,  viz: 


No.  of  the 

Chair. 

Heig-ht  of 
Chair  Seat. 

Height  of  front 
edge  of  Desk. 

Width  of  De«k. 

Length  of  Desk 
room    for    each 
scholar;     (not 
leu.) 

Distance 
between  the 
rows  of  Desk*. 

1 

2 
3 
4 

10  Inches. 
12      " 
14      " 
16      " 

17  Inches. 
19      " 
22      " 
24      " 

12  Inches. 
12      " 
14      « 
15      « 

17  Inches. 
18      " 
20      " 
22      « 

20  Inches. 
22      " 
24      " 
25      " 

The  first  column  denotes  the  number  of  the  chair,  as  also  the  number  of  the 
desk  stanchions. 

Second  column,  the  height  of  the  seat  from  the  floor. 

Third  column,  the  height  of  the  front  edge  of  the  desk  from  the  floor. 

Fourth  column,  the  width  of  the  top  of  the  desk.  The  slope  of  the  desk  should 
rise  li  inch  to  the  foot ;  the  larger  desks  having  2£  to  3  inches  level  on  top  to 
accommodate  inkstands. 

Fifth  column,  the  length  of  desk  room  required  for  each  scholar.  It  should 
not  be  less  than  here  given. 

Sixth  column,  the  distance  that  should  be  allowed  between  the  desks,  from 
the  back  of  one  to  the  front  edge  of  the  other.  This  space  will  allow  a  passage 
between  the  chair  and  the  next  rear  desk.  The  number  of  scholars  at  a  desk 
need  not  be  limited. 

The  position  of  each  chair,  when  screwed  to  the  floor,  should  have  two-thirds 
of  the  allotted  desk  room  to  the  right  of  its  centre,  and  be  so  near  that  the  back 
of  the  chair,  in  its  revolution,  will  barely  clear  the  desk.  By  placing  the  chair 
as  described,  the  body  of  the  child  is  brought  in  close  proximity  to  the  desk, 
causing  the  back  of  the  person  to  rest,  at  all  times,  and  under  all  circumstances, 
against  the  back  of  the  chair. 

The  chief  peculiarity  in  the  desk  is,  that  in  the  place  of  straight  wooden 
legs,  there  are  substituted  curved  cast  iron  stanchions ;  the  obvious  advantages 
of  which  are,  that  they  occasion  no  interference  with  the  movements  of  the 
scholar  seated  opposite  or  near  to  them. 

Two  stanchions  are  necessary  for  a  single  desk.  Two,  also,  will  support  a 
desk  of  sufficient  length  to  accommodate  three  scholars ;  three,  to  accommo- 
date six  scholars ;  four,  nine  scholars ;  and  so  on  for  a  greater  number. 

The  expense  of  fitting  up  a  room  with  this  chair  and  desk,  in  the  city  of  New 
York,  varies  from  SI  50  to  $2  00  a  scholar,  aside  from  the  putting  up  of  the 
desks. 


BOSTON  SCHOOL  FURNITURE. 


349 


Since  the  foregoing  style  of  chair  and  desk  was  introduced,  much  atten- 
tion has  been  paid  to  the  improvement  of  school  furniture,  with  a  view 
of  securing  convenience,  durability,  and  economy,  in  the  construction  both 
of  chairs  and  desks. 

THE  BOSTON  LATIN  HIGH  SCHOOL  DESK. 


The  above  cut  represents  an  end  view  of  a  new  style  of  desk  used 
in  the  Latin  High  School,  in  Bedford  street,  with  a  section  of  Wales' 
Patent  School  Chair.  The  standards  of  the  desks  are  made  of  cast 
iron,  and  are  braced  in  such  a  manner,  that  when  properly  secured  to  the 
floor,  there  is  not  the  least  motion.  The  curve  in  the  standard  facilitates 
the  use  of  the  broom  in  sweeping. 


THE  BOSTON  PRIMARY  SCHOOL  CHAIR. 

These  Chairs  were  got  up  for  the  special  benefit  of  the  Boston  Primary 
Schools,  by  JOSEPH  W.  INGRAHAM,  Esq.,  Chairman  of  the  Primary  School 
Standing  Committee;  and  have  already  been  introduced,  by  order  of  the 
Primary  School  Board,  into  the  greater  portion  of  their  Schools. 


The  first  pattern,  is  a  Chair  with  a  Shelf  (s)  under  the  seat,  for  the  purpose 
of  holding  the  Books,  Slates,  &c.  of  the  scholars. 

The  second  pattern  differs  from  the  first,  in  having,  instead  of  the  Shelf,  a 
Rack  (A)  on  the  back  of  the  chair,  for  the  same  use  as  the  Shelf  in  the  pre- 
ceding pattern.  The  third  pattern  is  similar  to  the  second,  except  that  the 
Rack  (A)  is  placed  at  the  side,  instead  of  the  back,  of  the  chair.  The  latter  pat- 
tern (with  the  Rack  on  the  side)  is  that  now  adopted  in  the  Boston  Schools. 

These  chairs  are  manufactured  by  William  G.  Shattuck,  No.  80  Commercial 
Street,  Boston.  The  price  is  fifty  cents,  each,  for  those  with  the  Shelf,  and 
tiocty-five  cents  for  those  with  the  Rack. 


350 


WALES'  IMPROVED  SCHOOL  FURNITURE. 


WALES'  IMPROVED  SCHOOL  FURNITURE. 

THE  following  cuts  represent  a  large  variety  of  improved  school  chairs, 
desks,  and  other  furniture  manufactured  by  Samuel  Wales,  Jr.,  at  No.  14 
Bromfield  Street,  Boston,  Mass.,  from  patterns  of  his  own  getting  up,  and 
with  such  facilities  of  experienced  workmen,  and  ingenious  machinery,  as 
enables  him  to  supply  all  orders  for  first-class  work,  with  economy,  precision, 
and  promptness. 

Wales'  improved  school  chairs  and  desks  embrace  the  following  variety, 
and  each  variety  is  constructed  on  the  following  scale  of  height,  so  as  to 
meet  the  varying  proportions  of  scholars  ranging  from  four  years  to  twenty 
years  of  age: 

No.  1.  Chairs,  10  inches  high ;  Desks,  side  next  the  scholar,  20  inches  high. 


11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 


21 

22 

23 

24 

25£ 

27 

28* 


WALES'  AMERICAN  SCHOOL  CHAIRS. 

No.  1. 


These  chairs  are  plain  and  substantial.  Each  chair  is  based  upon  a  single 
iron  pedestal,  which  is  secured  to  the  seat  of  the  chair  at  the  top,  and  to  the 
floor  of  the  school-room  at  the  foot.  The  center-piece  of  the  chair-back  de- 
scends directly  into  the  foot  of  the  iron  pedestal,  intersecting  the  back  of  the 
seat  as  it  passes,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  form  a  back  stay,  thereby  producing 
in  the  chair,  as  a  whole,  the  greatest  possible  degree  of  firmness  and  strength. 

No.  2. 


No.  2  represents  an  improved  school  desk  for  two  scholars. 


WALES'  IMPROVED  SCHOOL  FURNITURE. 

No.  3. 


351 


No.  3  represents  an  improved  single  desk  for  one  scholar,  on  iron  supports, 
with  American  school  chairs  to  correspond.  Each  desk  is  furnished  with  an 
ink-well,  and  a  metal  cover  of  the  best  kind.  The  top  is  grooved,  to  ac- 
commodate pens,  pencils,  and  other  small  articles,  with  a  safe  resting-place. 

WALES'  NEW  ENGLAND  SCHOOL  CHAIRS. 
No.  4. 


Each  chair  is  based  upon  a  pedestal  of  iron,  of  great  beauty  and  strength, 
which  is  firmly  secured  to  the  seat  of  the  chair  at  the  top,  and  to  the  floor  of 
the  school-room  at  the  foot.  An  ornamental  center-piece  passes  down  into 
the  base  of  the  pedestal,  forming  the  center  of  the  chair-back  and  the  back  stay. 


No.  5. 


352 


WALES'  IMPROVED  SCHOOL  FURNITURE, 
No.  6. 


Cuts  No.  5  and  No.  6,  represent  an  improved  double  school  desk,  the 
latter  for  one,  and  the  former  for  two  scholars,  with  the  New  England 
school  chair  to  correspond. 


WALES'  BOWDOIN  SCHOOL  CHAIRS. 


No.  7 


These  chairs  are  constructed  substantially  like  those  already  described, 
with  a  tasteful  scroll  top.  The  following  diagrams,  Nos.  8  and  9,  represent 
the  chair  in  connection  with  a  desk,  both  for  one  and  two  scholars. 


No.  8. 


WALES'  IMPROVED  SCHOOL  FURNITURE. 


No.  9. 


WALES'  WASHINGTON  SCHOOL  CHAIRS. 

Ko.  10. 


Nos.  10,  11,  and  12,  represent  the  eight  sizes  of  another  variety  of  the 
chair,  with  the  corresponding  desk,  both  single  and  double. 


No.  11. 


23 


354 


WALES'  IMPROVED  SCHOOL  FURNITURE. 
No.  12. 


WALES'  NORMAL  SCHOOL  DESKS  AND  CHAIRS. 

No.  13. 


No.  14. 


The  engraving  represents  a  Normal  School  Double  Desk,  on  iron  supports, 
having  two  covers,  with  Washington  School  Chairs  to  correspond.  Each 
cover  opens  a  separate  apartment  in  the  desk,  designed  for  the  exclusive  use 
of  one  scholar.  , 


WALES'  IMPROVED  SCHOOL  FURNITURE. 


355 


WALES'  IMPROVED  WRITING  STOOLS. 

No.  15. 


For  most  educational  purposes,  chairs  are  highly  preferable,  and  this  seems 
to  be  the  general  opinion  ;  but,  in  cases  where  writing  is  taught  in  a  separate 
department,  the  writing-stool  is  preferred,  as  being  less  expensive,  and  occu- 
pying less  room. 


WALES'  PRIMARY  SCHOOL  CHAIR. 

No.  16. 


The  engravings  No.  16  and  No.  17,  represent  a  series  of  three  sizes,  suita- 
ble for  scholars  from  four  years  of  age  and  upward,  comprehending  all  the 
sizes  needed  in  primary  and  intermediate  schools,  to  wit : — 
No.  1,     .     .     10  inches  high. 
"    2,     .     .     11      "         " 
"    3,     .     .     12      "         " 

Each  chair  is  based  on  an  iron  pedestal,  securely  fastened  to  the  seat  at 
the  top,  and  to  the  floor  of  the  school-room  at  the  foot ;  thus  becoming  a  per- 
manent article  of  furniture,  and  completely  avoiding  the  confusion,  irregular- 
ity and  noise,  which  are  the  unavoidable  accompaniments  of  movable  chairs 
in  a  school-room. 


WALES'  BASKET  PRIMARY  SCHOOL  CHAIR. 

No.  17. 


The  Basket  Chair  has  a  tastefully  ornamented  book  basket  of  iron,  into 
which  the  children  can  place  their  books,  slates,  and  other  utensils  of  study. 
As  a  whole,  in  view  of  their  strength,  comfort,  beauty  and  adaptation  to  their 
object,  these  are  regarded  as  the  best  Primary  School  Chairs  extant. 


856 


WALES'  IMPROVED  SCHOOL  FURNITURE. 


WALES'  IMPROVED  SETTEES. 
No.  18. 


4 


The  engravings  No.  18  and  No.  19,  represent  an  Improved  Settee,  eight 
feet  in  length,  based  upon  iron  supports,  designed  for  that  purpose.  Such 
settees  are  well  adapted  for  recitation-rooms,  the  walls  of  school-rooms,  for 
the  accommodation  of  visitors,  or  for  any  position  where  permanent  settees 
are  wanted.  They  are  made  of  any  required  height,  size,  or  length  ;  often 
from  forty  to  sixty  feet  in  length,  when  placed  on  the  walls  of  school-rooms ; 
and,  being  without  arms  or  other  divisions,  the  whole  length,  in  fact,  forming 
a  single  settee,  have  been  found  to  be  very  convenient,  and  of  good  appear- 
ance. 

WALES'  IMPROVED  LYCEUM  SETTEE. 

No.  ]9. 


The  Improved  Lyceum  Settee  is  divided  into  five  parts  or  seats,  with  fancy 
iron  arms,  made  for  that  purpose. 

WALES'  TEACHERS'  ARM-CHAIRS. 

No.  20. 


The  engravings,  Nos.  20  and  21,  represent  two  substantial,  well-made,  and 
comfortable  arm-chairs,  having  no  other  claim  to  novelty  than  may  be  due  to 
the  fact  that  they  are  constructed  entirely  of  hard  wood,  and  are  finished 
without  paint  of  any  kind  ;  they  will  therefore  wear  well,  and  retain  their 
good  appearance  without  soiling  or  defacement,  for  a  long  period. 


WALES'  IMPROVED  SCHOOL  FURNITURE. 

WALES'  TEACHER'S  ARM-CHAIRS,  WITH  CUSHIONS. 

No.  21. 


967 


WALES'  TEACHER'S  TABLE,  WITHOUT  DRAWERS. 

No.  22. 


WALES'  TEACHER'S  TABLE,  ONE  DRAWER. 

No.  23. 


WALES'  TEACHER'S  TABLE,  TWO  DRAWERS. 

No.  24. 


358  WALES'  IMPROVED  SCHOOL  FURNITURE. 

MOVABLE  SKELETON  DESK.  PORTABLE  DESK. 

No.  25,  No.  26. 


WALES'  TEACHER'S  DESK. 

No.  27. 


WALES'  TEACHER'S  DESK,  THREE  DRAWERS  AND  TABLE  Top. 

No.  28. 


WALES'  TEACHER'S  DESK,  THREE  DRAWERS  AND  TOP  DESK. 

No.  29. 


WALES'  IMPROVED  SCHOOL  FURNITURE. 
WALES'  TEACHER'S  DESK,  TWO  DRAWERS  AND  TABLE  TOP- 

No.  30. 


359 


WALES'  TEACHER'S  DESK,  TWO  DRAWERS  AND  TOP  DESK. 


No.  31. 


WALES'  TEACHER'S  DESK,  FOUR  DRAWERS  AND  TABLE  TOP. 

No.  32. 


WALES'  TEACHER'S  DESK,  FOUR  DRAWERS  AND  TOP  DESK, 

No.  33. 


360 


WALES'  IMPROVED  SCHOOL  FURNITURE. 


WALES'  TEACHER'S  DESK,  six  DRAWERS  AND  TABLE  TOP. 

No.  34. 


WALES'  TEACHER'S  DESK,  six  DRAWERS  AND  TOP  DESK. 

No.  35. 


WALES'  TEACHER'S  DESK  AND  LIBRARY,  FOUR  DRAWERS,  TABLE  TOP  AND 

BOOK-CASE 


No.  36. 


A.  The  side  occupied  by  the  Teacher. 


WALES'  IMPROVED  SCHOOL  FURNITURE. 
No.  37. 


361 


B. 

B-  The  side  facing  the  school,  with  a  large  drawer  for  maps,  drawings,  &c., 
and  two  doors  which  open  a  book-case,  suitable  for  a  school  library. 

WALES'  TEACHER'S  DESK  AND  LIBRARY,  six  DRAWERS,   TABLE  TOP  AND 
LARGE  BOOK-CASE. 


No.  38. 


A. 

A.  The  side  occupied  by  the  Teacher. 

No.  39. 


B. 

B.  The  side  facing  the  school,  with  a  large  drawer  for  maps,  drawings, 
&c-,  a  small  drawer  for  utensils  of  study,  and  three  doors  which  open  a  large 
book-case,  suitable  for  a  school  library. 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


As  drawing  is  a  regular  study  in  our  best  conducted  schools,  suitable  provision 
should  be  made,  in  the  construction  and  arrangement  of  school  furniture,  for  its 
convenient  prosecution.  If  this  branch  is  to  be  attended  to  at  the  desks  usually 
occupied  by  the  pupil,  a  light  frame  can  be  attached  to  the  desk  to  support  the 
model,  or  lesson  copy,  and  a  movable  ledge  provided,  on  which  the  upper  part  of 
the  drawing  board  may  rest. 

A  LEAP  AND  DRAWING  DESK. 

A  drawing  desk  may  be  made,  in  connection  with  a  fall  or  leaf  desk,  after  the 
following  plan,  from  Richson's  School  Builder's  Guide. 

In  the  fall  or  leaf  desk,  the  leaf  is  attached  to  the  level,  fixed  portion  6,  by 
hinges,  and  when  turned  up  leans  on  an  iron  rod,  or  support  «,  and  when  turned 
down  rests  on  a  bracket  (Fig.  1.)  The  bracket  moves  on  iron  pins,  let  into  the 
under  side  of  the  desk  above,  and  the  strengthening  bar  g,  below.  The  end  of 
the  arm  of  the  bracket  is  made  with  a  swivel  joint,  composed  of  two  projecting 
points  or  pins,  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  both  of  which  fit  into  a  hole  d,  on 
the  under  side  of  the  desk,  to  prevent  any  movement  of  the  bracket.  When  one 
of  these  points/,  (Fig.  2,)  is  up,  the  leaf  resting  upon  it  forms  an  inclined  desk, 
and  when  the  other  point  A,  is  turned  up,  an  extra  height  is  gained  and  the  leaf 
forms  a  level  table. 


This  form  of  study  or  writing  desk  is  easily  converted  into  a  drawing  desk, 
(Fig.  3,)  by  fitting  to  the  under  side  c,  of  the  leaf  near  the  hinge,  a  wedge- 


shaped  ledge  d,  on  which  the  upper  end  of  the  movable  drawing  board  may  rest, 
while  the  other  end  is  placed  on  the  pupils  knees.  The  bracket  c,  is  formed  with 
a  curve,  in  order  to  admit  the  ledge  when  the  leaf  is  let  down.  The  model  or 


SCHOOL  FURNITURE.  363 

copy  can  rest  on  the  ledge  and  against  the  leaf  c.    The  bracket  can  be  turned  in 
when  the  leaf  is  thus  used. 

The  annexed  cut,  Fig.  4,  exhibits  another  method  of  forming  the  bracket  in  a 
cast  iron  standard.  The  upper  portion  of  the  standard  is,  in  this  specimen,  pro- 
vided with  stays,  into  which  the  wood  work  is  attached  by  screws. 


We  give  below  the  plan  of  a  movable  drawing  desk, 
tared  by  Joseph  L.  Ross.  Boston. 


and  manufao- 


Ross'  MOVABLE  DRAWING  DESK. 

The  standard  consists  of  a  hollow  iron  pillar,  with  a  neat  tripod  base,  on  which 
it  rests  firmly  on  the  floor.  In  this  pillar  is  inserted  a  shaft,  controlled  by  a  screw, 
to  raise  or  lower  the  desk  at  the  pleasure  of  the  pupil.  The  desk  or  drawing 
table  is  attached  to  the  top  of  the  shaft  by  hinges,  on  which  it  can  be  turned,  and, 
by  means  of  a  circle,  which  passes  through  the  shaft,  and  a  screw,  fixed  at  any 
angle  required.  Attached  to  the  under  side  of  the  table  is  a  drawer  to  receive 
the  implements,  &c. 


364 


DRAWING  DESK  AND  BOARD. 


The  following  cuts  represent  a  front  view  (Fig.  1,)  and  end  section  (Fig.  2,)  of 
the  desk,  and  a  front  view  and  section  of  a  drawing  board  (Fig.  3,)  recommended 
for  the  use  of  the  drawing  schools  in  connection  with  the  Department  of  Practical 
Art  in  the  Board  of  Trade,  England. 


Fig.  1.— FRONT  VIEW  or  DRAWING  DESK. 


Fiy 


.Z 


Fig.  2.— SECTION  OF  DRAWING  DESK.  Fig.  3.— DRAWING  BOARD. 

A,  A,  Fig.  1,  A,  Fig.  2 — A  wooden  rail,  screwed  to  iron  uprights  C,  C,  to  hold 
the  examples  or  copy. 

B,  B,  I  inch  rod,  passing  through  eyes  inf  inch  iron  uprights,  C,  C,  C,  to  sup- 
port the  examples. 

C,  C,  C,  |  inch  iron  uprights,  screwed  to  the  desk  at  I,  and  punched  at  the  up- 
per end  to  receive  the  iron  rod  B. 

D,  D,  hollow  space  to  hold  the  students'  pencils,  knives,  &c. 

E,  E,  wooden  rail  to  stiffen  uprights,  F,  F,  F,  which  are  screwed  to  the  floor. 
G,  G,  (Fig.  1,)  short  fillets,  as  shown  at  G,  (Fig.  2,)  placed  opposite  each  stu- 
dent, to  retain  the  board,  or  example  more  upright  if  necessary. 

H,  (Fig.  2,)  a  fillet  running  along  the  desk,  to  prevent  pencils,  &c.,  rolling  of£ 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


365 


KIMBALL'S  IMPROVED  SCHOOL  CHAIRS  AND  DESK. 

"  These  Chairs  combine  strength,  comfort,  and  style  of  finish.  They  are 
made  of  different  heights,  varying  from  eight  to  sixteen  inches,  and  for  Primary 
as  well  as  for  Grammar  and  District  Schools. 


The  School  Desks  are  made  of  Pine,  Cherry,  or  Black  Walnut,  and  ol 
heights  to  correspond  with  the  chairs.  The  iron  supporters  are  firmly  screwed 
to  the  floor,  and  are  braced  in  such  a  manner  that  there  is  not  the  least  motion.* 

The  above  extracts  are  taken  from  the  Circular  of  JAMES  KIMBALL.  109  or 
127  Essex  Street^  Salem,  Mass. 

The  cuts  below  represent  a  view  of  the  desk  and  seat,  and  of  the  frame 

for  the  same,  used 
in  the  high  school 
for  girls  in  New- 
buryport,  Mass. 
The  frame  is  cast 
iron,  to  which  the 
seat  and  desk 
is  attached  by 
screws.  The 
frame  is  strength- 
ened by  a  brace 
extending  from 
each  side  below 
the  seat 


366 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


Ross'  AMERICAN  SCHOOL  FURNITURE. 

Although  we  have  already  published  a  variety  of  designs  for  desks 
and  chairs  for  pupils  and  teachers,  we  gladly  extend  the  liberty  of  choice 
by  inserting  a  series  of  "practical  illustrations  of  American  School  Fur- 
niture," manufactured  by  Joseph  L.  Ross,  corner  of  Hawkins  and  Ivers 
streets,  Boston,  Mass.  Mr.  Ross  was  one  of  the  earliest  to  embark  in 
the  enterprise  of  furnishing  schools  of  every  grade  with  graceful,  com- 
fortable, and  durable  furniture,  and  his  chairs  and  desks  may  now  be 
seen  in  public  and  private  schools  in  every  part  of  the  country. 

The  chair  are  of  seven  different  heights,  the  lowest  being  10  inches, 
and  the  highest  17  inches.  The  seat  is  of  hard  wood,  and  is  attached  to 
a  pedestal  of  iron  which  is  attached  to  the  floor  by  screws.  The  pecu- 
liarity of  each  style  is  sufficiently  indicated  by  the  diagrams. 

The  desks  are  also  of  different  heights,  and  both  chairs  and  desks  can 
be  ordered  according  to  the  following  scale : 

No.  1.  extra  Chairs,  17  inches  high ;  Desks,  side  next  to  the  scholar,  29  inches  high. 
1.  Chairs,  16  inches  high ;  Desks,  side  next  to  the  scholar,   27^    "        " 


15 
14 
13 
12 
11 
10 


26 
241 
23 
22 

21; 


No.  1.    NEW  ENGLAND  PRIMARY  SCHOOL  CHAIR. 


NEW  YORK  PRIMARY  SCHOOL  CHAIR. 


NEW  ENGLAND  PRIMARY  SCHOOL  BASKET  CHAIR 


ROSS'  AMERICAN  SCHOOL  FURNITURE. 


367 


No,    4.    NEW    ENGLAND    SINGLE    PRIMARY  No   g     j;EW  ENGLAND  DOUBLE  PRIMARY  SCHOOL  DESB 


SCHOOL  DESK  AND  CHAIR. 


AND  CHAIRS. 


368  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

No.  8.    NEW  YORK  PRIMARY  DOUBLE  DESK  AND  CHAIRS 


No.  9.    VILLAGE  SCHOOL  DESI 


Nos.  1,  2,  3,  represents  different  styles-  of  chairs  for  primary  schools,  each  of 
four  different  heights,  viz.,  10,  11,  12,  and  13  inches.  The  basket  for  books, 
slates,  &c.,  in  No.  3,  is  made  of  cast-iron,  and  is  free  from  any  sharp  corners. 

Nos.  4,  5,  6,  7,  represents  the  foregoing  styles  of  chairs  in  connection  with  a 
lesk  for  one  or  two  pupils.  The  ends,  or  standards  of  the  desks  are  wood,  and 
are  inserted  and  bolted  in  a  shoe  of  iron,  which  is  attached  to  the  floor  by  screws. 
The  chairs  vary  in  height  from  10  to  13  inches,  and  the  desks  to  the  scale  on  tho 
foregoing  page. 

No.  8  represents  a  variety  in  the  style  of  desks,  the  standard  of  the  latter 
be  ing  cast-iron,  of  a  iieat  pattern.  These  hnwe  been  introduced  into  several  of  the 
primary  and  intermediate  schools  of  New  York. 

No.  9  represents  a  school  desk  with  seat  for  desk  in  advance,  attached  to  the 
game  standard.  The  standard  or  frame  are  of  cast-iron,  and  are  made  of  seven 
different  sizee,  varying  from  10  to  17  inches. 

Nos.  23  and  23  represents  different  styles  of  glass  ink  well,  and  metallic  covers 
fbr  the  same. 

No.  24  represents  a  settee  for  class-rooms,  &c.,and  for  visitors ;  made  to  order 
of  any  required  length. 


ROSS'  AMERICAN  SCHOOL  FURNITURE. 


369 


No.  1 0  represents  a  stool  or  seat  without  a  back,  for  writing  and  drawing,  of 
eight  different  sizes,  from  10  to  17  inches. 

No.  1 1  represents  a  style  of  chair  generally  adopted  in  the  grammar  schools  of 
Boston.  The  pedestal  is  of  cast-iron,  to  which  the  seat  is  firmly  attached  by 
screws,  and  which  is  also  attached  to  the  floor  in  the  same  way.  The  center 
piece  of  the  chair  is  let  into  the  foot  of  the  pedestal.  There  are  eight  sizes  from 
10  to  17  inches. 


No.  23.    IMPROVED  METALLIC  INK  WELL  COVERS. 


370  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

No.  12.    SINGLE  GRAMMAR  SCHOOL  DESK  AND  CHAIR. 


No.  13.    DOUBLE  GRAMMAR  SCHOOL  DESK  AND  TWO  CHAIRS. 


Nos.  12  and  13,  represents  a  style  of  desk  for  one  or  two  pupils,  used  in  the  gram- 
mar schools  of  Boston.  The  desk  is  16  inches  wide  and  24  inches  long  for  one, 
and  48  inches  for  two  pupils.  The  desk  is  made  firm  by  an  iron  brace,  one  end  of 
which  is  screwed  to  the  bottom  of  the  desk,  and  the  other  to  the  iron  standard. 
Along  the  back  edge  of  the  top  of  the  desk  is  a  hollow  to  receive  pens,  pencil, 
^fco. ;  ink-pot  or  well  is  inserted  with  a  lead  or  metallic  cover. 


ROSS'  AMERICAN  SCHOOL  FURNITURE.  371 

No.  14.    SZXOLB  DESK  WITH  FALL  TO  LIFT  AND  CHAIR  FOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS  AND  ACAD«KI*». 


No.  15.    DOUBLE  DESK  AND  TWO  CHAIRS  FOR  TWO  SCHOLARS  FOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

AND   ACADEMIES. 


No.  24.     SETTEES  FOR  RECITATION  SCHOOL  ROOMS,  &a 


372  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

No.  16.    SINGLE  DESK  AND  CHAIR  FOR  YOUNG  LADIES'  SEMINARIES. 


No.  17. 


SEMINARIES 


Nos.  14,  15,  16,  17,  18,  present  some  modifications  in  the  size,  style,  and  finish 
of  the  desk.  The  top  of  the  desk  is  covered  with  cloth,  a  portfolio  with  a  clasp 
to  keep  it  together,  for  drawings  ;  an  improved  hinge  ;  an  improved  metallic  box 
with  cover  to  receive  a  glass  ink  well,  (see  Fig.  22,)  and  the  level  portion  of  the 
top  hollowed  out  to  receive  pens  and  pencil.  Desks  and  chairs  of  this  pattern 
have  been  manufactured  for  the  Spingler  Institute,  Union  Park,  New  York,  and 
the  City  Normal  School,  Boston,  and  other  schools  of  a  higher  character.  The 
wood  work  of  these  and  the  other  patterns  are  made  of  cherry,  black-walnut  or 
mahogany,  according  to  order. 


ROSS'  AMERICAN  SCHOOL  FURNITURE.  373 

No.  18.    BOSTON  HIGH  SCHOOL  DESK  AND  CHAIR. 


No.  19.    DOUBLE  DESK  AND  TWO  CHAIRS  FOR  YOUNG  LADIES'  SEMINARIES. 


No.  21  represents  a  style  of  Drawing  Desk,  designed  and  manufactured  for 
the  Lowell  Institute.  The  bottom  of  the  desk  is  made  of  iron  in  a  neat  tripod 
form,  with  a  hollow  pillar  inserted,  in  which  is  a  shaft  to  raise  and  fall  the  desk  at 
pleasure,  that  supports  the  top  of  the  Drawing  Table,  and  is  confined  to  the  same 
by  hinges  ;  with  a  circle  affixed  to  the  under  side  of  the  top  and  passing  through 
the  center  of  the  shaft,  which,  by  a  set  of  screws,  enables  the  person  using  the 
same,  to  raise  the  desk  to  any  height  or  angle  required.  Attached  to  the  under- 
side is  a  draw  for  the  drawing  instruments,  made  to  draw  out  on  either  side. 


374 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


No.  20.    DOUBLE  DESK  AND  TWO  CHAIRS  FOR  YOUNG  LADIES'  SEMINARIES 


No.  21.    LOWELL  INSTITDTK  DRAWING  DESK. 


ROSS'  AMERICAN  SCHOOL  FURNITURE. 
No.  25.    HARD  WOOD  TEACHER'S  CHAIRS. 


375 


No.   23.      A   VERY    HEAT    AND   COMFORTABLE    TEACHER'S    CHAIR. 


376 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


No.  28.  RECITATION  ROOM  TABLE. 


No.  29.  PRIMARY  SCHOOL  TABLE. 


No.  30.  BOSTON  PRIMARY  SCHOOL  DESK. 


ROSS'  AMERICAN  SCHOOL  FURNITURE. 


377 


No.  31.    TEACHER'S  TABLE,  OF  VARIOUS  SIZES. 


No.  32.    TEACHER'S  DESK,  WITH  TWO  DRAWERS. 


No.  33.    TEACHER'S  DKSK,  WITH  FOUR  DRAWERS. 


378 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


No.  34.    TEACHER'S  DESK,  WITH  A  MOVABLE  INCLINED  PLANE  OK  TOP. 


No.  35.    TEACHER'S  DESK,  CLOTH  TOP,  FOUR  DRAWERS. 


No.  36.    TEACHER'S  DESK,  WITH  FOUR  DRAWERS  AND  TOP     ESK. 


ROSS'  AMERICAN  SCHOOL  FURNITURE. 


379 


No.  37.    BOSTON  TEACHER'S  DESK,  WITH  NINE  DRAWERS. 


No.  38.    BOSTON  TKACHIR'S  DESK,  NINE  DRAWERS. 


No   39.    Naw  YORK  IMPROVED  TEACHER'S  DESK. 


380 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

BOOK  MANUAL. 
2.  3. 


The  pupil  should  stand  erect, — his  heels  near  together, — toes  turn- 
ed out, — and  his  eyes  directed  to  the  face  of  the  person  speaking  to 
him. 

FIGURE  ONE  represents  the  Book  Monitor  with  a  pile  of  books 
across  his  left  arm,  with  the  backs  from  him,  and  with  the  top  of  the 
page  to  the  right  hand. 

FIGURE  TWO  represents  the  Book  Monitor,  with  the  right  hand 
hands  the  book  to  the  Pupil,  who  receives  it  in  his  right  hand,  with 
ic  back  of  the  book  to  the  left ;  and  then  passes  it  into  the  left  hand, 
where  it  is  held  with  the  back  upwards,  and  with  the  thumb  ex 
tended  at  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees  with  the  edge  of  the  book 
(as  in  figure  2,)  until  a  further  order  is  given. 


BOOK  MANUAL.  331 

FIGURE  THREE — When  the  page  is  given  out,  the  book  is  turned 
by  the  thumb  on  the  side  ;  and,  while  held  with  both  hands,  is  turned 
with  the  back  downwards,  with  the  thumbs  meeting  across  the  leaves, 
at  a  point  judged  to  be  nearest  the  place  to  be  found.  On  opening 
the  book,  the  left  hand  slides  down  to  the  bottom,  and  thence  to  the 
middle,  where  the  thumb  and  little  finger  are  made  to  press  on  the 
two  opposite  pages.  If  the  Pupil  should  have  thus  lit  upon  the  page 
sought  for,  he  lets  fall  the  right  hand  by  the  side,  and  his  position  is 
that  of  Fig.  3. 

FIGURE  FOUR — But,  if  he  has  opened  short  of  the  page  required, 
the  thumb  of  the  right  hand  is  to  be  placed  near  the  upper  corner  of 
the  page,  as  seen  in  Fig.  4  ;  while  the  forefinger  lifts  the  leaves  to 
bring  into  view  the  number  of  the  page.  If  he  finds  that  he  has  not 
raised  enough,  the  forefinger  and  thumb  hold  those  already  raised, 
while  the  second  finger  lifts  the  leaves,  and  brings  them  within  the 
grasp  of  the  thumb  and  finger.  When  the  page  required  is  found,  all 
the  fingers  are  to  be  passed  under  the  leaves,  and  the  whole  turned  at 
once.  Should  the  Pupil,  on  the  contrary,  have  opened  too  far,  and 
be  obliged  to  turn  back,  he  places  the  right  thumb,  in  like  manner, 
on  the  left-hand  page,  and  the  leaves  are  lifted  as  before  described. 

FIGURE  FIVE — Should  the  book  be  old,  or  so  large  as  to  be  weari- 
some to  hold,  the  right  hand  may  sustain  the  left,  as  seen  in  Fig.  5. 

FIGURE  six  and  SEVEN — While  reading,  as  the  eye  rises  to  the  top 
of  the  right-hand  page,  the  right  hand  is  brought  to  the  position  seen 
in  Fig.  4  ;  and,  with  the  forefinger  under  the  leaf,  the  hand  is  slid 
down  to  the  lower  corner,  and  retained  there  during  the  reading  of 
this  page,  as  seen  in  Fig.  6.  This  also  is  the  position  in  which  the 
book  is  to  be  held  when  about  to  be  closed ;  in  doing  which,  the  left 
hand,  being  carried  up  to  the  side,  supports  the  book  firmly  and  un- 
moved, while  the  right  hand  turns  the  part  it  supports  over  on  the  left 
thumb,  as  seen  in  Fig.  7.  The  thumb  will  then  be  drawn  out  from 
between  the  leaves,  and  placed  on  the  cover ;  when  the  right  hand 
will  fall  by  the  side,  as  seen  in  Fig.  2. 

FIGURE  EIGHT — But,  if  the  reading  has  ended,  the  right  hand  re- 
tains the  book,  and  the  left  hand  falls  by  the  side,  as  seen  in  Fig.  8. 
The  book  will  now  be  in  a  position  to  be  handed  to  the  Book  Monitor  ; 
who  receives  it  in  his  right  hand,  and  places  it  on  his  left  arm,  with 
the  back  towards  his  body.  The  books  are  now  in  the  most  suitable 
situation  for  being  passed  to  the  shelves  or  drawers,  where,  without 
being  crowded,  they  should  be  placed  with  uniformity  and  care. 

In  conclusion,  it  may  be  proper  to  remark,  that  however  trivial 
these  minute  directions  may  appear  to  some  minds,  it  will  be  found 
on  experience,  that  books  thus  treated,  may  be  made  to  last  double 
the  time  that  they  will  do,  under  the  usual  management  in  schools. 
Nor  is  the  attainment  of  a  correct  arid  graceful  mode  of  handling  a 
book,  the  only  benefit  received  by  the  pupil.  The  use  of  this  man- 
ual is  calculated  to  beget  a  love  of  order  and  propriety,  and  disposes 
him  more  readily  to  adopt  the  habit  generally,  of  doing  things  in  a 
methodical  and  systematic  manner. 


382 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

SHATTCCK'S  IMPROVED  SCHOOL  FURNITURE. 


WILLIAM  G.  SHATTUCK.  No.  80  Commercial  Street,  and  149  and 
153  Fulton  Street,  Boston,  manufactures  a  variety  of  School  Furniture, 
of  which  the  following  cuts  represent  specimens. 


No.  1.    BOSTON  PRIMARY  SCHOOL  CHAIR, 


No.  2.    SINGLE  AND  DOUBLE  DESK  FOR  GRAMMAR  AND  DISTRICT  SCHOOLS,  WITH 
AN  IMPROVED  CHAIR. 


No.  3.    DESK  AND  CHAIRS  FOR  TEACHER  IN  VARIETY  OF  PATTERNS. 


APPARATUS. 

IN  addition  to  che  necessary  furniture  of  a  school,  such  as  seats,  desks, 
and  other  fixtures  and  articles  required  for  the  accommodation  of  pupils 
and  teacher,  and  the  order  and  cleanliness  of  the  premises,  every  school- 
room should  be  furnished  with  such  apparatus  as  shall  enable  the  teacher 
to  employ  the  hand  and  eye  of  every  pupil  in  illustration  and  experiment 
so  far  as  may  be  practicable  and  desirable  in  the  course  of  instruction 
pursued  in  the  school.  It  is  therefore  important,  in  the  internal  arrange- 
ment of  a  school-house,  to  have  regard  to  the  safe-keeping,  display,  and 
use  of  such  apparatus  as  the  grade  of  the  school,  for  which  the  house  is 
intended,  may  require.  A  few  suggestions  will  therefore  be  made  on 
these  points,  and  in  aid  of  committees  and  trustees  in  selecting  apparatus. 

1.  In  a  large  school,  and  in  schools  of  the  highest  grade,  there  will  be 
need  of  a  separate  apartment  appropriated  to  the  safe-keeping  of  the 
apparatus,  and  in  some  departments  of  instruction,  for  the  proper  use  of 
the  same.     But  in  small  schools,  and  as  far  as  practicable  in  all  schools, 
maps,  diagrams,  and  other  apparatus,  should  be  in  view  of  the  school  at 
all  times. 

This  will  not  only  add  to  the  attractions  of  the  school,  and  make  the 
school-room  look  like  a  workshop  of  education,  but  will  awaken  a  desire 
in  the  pupils  to  know  the  uses  of  the  various  articles,  and  to  become  ac- 
quainted with  the  facts  and  principles  which  can  thus  be  seen,  heard,  or 
handled. 

2.  Such  articles  as  are  liable  to  be  injured  by  dust,  or  handling,  must 
be  provided  with  an  appropriate  room,  or  a  case  of  sufficient  size,  having 
glazed  and  sliding  doors,  and  convenient  shelves. 

The  doors  should  not  be  glazed  to  the  floor,  on  account  of  liability  to 
breakage,  and  also  to  admit  of  drawers  for  maps  and  diagrams,  and  a 
closet  for  such  articles  as  may  be  uninteresting  or  unseemly  to  the  eye, 
although  useful  in  their  place. 

The  shelves  should  be  movable,  so  as  to  admit  of  additions  of  larger 
or  smaller  specimens  of  apparatus,  and  also  of  such  arrangement  as  the 
varying  tastes  of  different  teachers  may  require. 

3.  There  should  be  a  table,  with  a  level  top,  and  capable  of  being  made 
perfectly  firm,  unless  the  teacher's  desk  can  be  so,  for  the  teacher  to  place 
his  apparatus  on,  when  in  use. 

4.  The  apparatus  of  every  school-room  should  be  selected  with  refer- 
ence to  the  grade  of  schools  to  which  it  is  appropriated,  and  in  Primary 
and  District  schools  in  particular,  should  be  of  simple  construction  and 
convenient  for  use. 

5.  As  far  as  practicable,  the  real  object  in  nature  and  art,  and  not  a 
diagram,  or  model,  should  be  secured. 


384  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

The  following  list  of  articles  is  necessarily  very  imperfect,  but  it  may 
help  to  guide  committees  in  their  search  after  apparatus. 

ARTICLES  INDISPENSABLE  IN  SCHOOLS  OF  EVERY  GRADE. 

A  clock. 

The  cardinal  points  of  the  heavens  painted  on  the  ceiling,  or  on  the 
teacher's  platform,  or  the  floor  of  the  recitation  room. 

As  much  blackboard,  or  black  surface  on  the  walls  of  the  school-room, 
and  the  recitation  rooms,  as  can  be  secured.  A  portion  of  this  black  sur- 
face should  be  in  full  view  of  the  whole  school,  for  passing  explanations; 
and  another  portion  out  of  the  way,  within  reach  of  the  smallest  pupils. 
One  or  more  movable  blackboards,  or  large  slate,  with  one  or  more  mova- 
ble stands  or  supporters. 

All  the  appendages  to  a  blackboard,  such  as  chalk,  crayons,  and  a  rub- 
ber of  soft  cloth,  leather,  or  sheepskin,  and  a  pointer. 

An  inkstand,  fixed  into  the  desk,  with  a  lid,  and  with  a  pen-wiper  at- 
tached. 

A  slate,  iron-bound  at  the  corners,  and  covered  with  list,  or  India-rub- 
ber cloth,  for  every  desk,  with  a  pencil-holder  and  sponge  attached.  A 
few  extra  slates  for  the  use  of  the  youngest  pupils,  under  the  care  and 
at  the  discretion  of  the  teacher. 

A  map  of  the  district,  town,  pounty,  and  state. 

A  terrestrial  globe,  properly  mounted,  or  suspended  by  a  wire. 

The  measure  of  an  inch,  foot,  yard,  and  rod,  marked  off  on  the  edge  of 
the  blackboard,  or  on  the  wall. 

Real  measures  of  all  kinds,  linear,  superficial,  solid,  and  liquid ;  as  a 
foot-rule,  a  yard-stick,  quarts,  bushels,  an  ounce,  pound,  &c.,  for  the  ex- 
ercise of  the  eye  and  hand. 

Vases  for  flowers  and  natural  grasses. 

APPARATUS  FOR  A  PRIMARY  OR  DISTRICT  SCHOOL. 
The  apparatus  for  this  class  of  schools  cannot  be  specified  with  much 
minuteness,  because  the  ages  of  the  pupils,  and  the  modes  of  instruction 
vary  so  much  in  different  localities.     The  following  list  embraces  the  ar- 
ticles purchased  for  Primary  and  District  schools  in  Rhode  Island : 
Movable  Lesson  Posts.    These  are  from  three  and  a  half  to  four  feet 
high,  and  are  variously  made  of  wood,  and  of  cast-iron.     It 
consists,  when  made  of  wood,  of  an  upright  piece  of  plank 
from  two  to  three  inches  square  at  the  bottom,  and  dimin- 
ishing regularly  to  the  top,  where  it  is  one  inch,  inserted 
in  a  round  or  cross  base  broad  r      igh  to  support  the  lesson 
board,  or  card,  which  is  suspended  by  a  ring  on  a  hook  at 
or  near  the  top  of  the  post. 

J.  L.  Mott,  264,  Water  street,  New  York,  manufactures 
for  the  Primary  schools  of  the  Public  School  Society  of 
New  York,  a  very  neat  cast-iron  lesson  stand. 

Reading  Lessons.  Colored  Prints,  and  Diagrams  of 
various  kinds,  such  as  of  animals,  costumes,  trades,  &c., 
pasted  on  boards  of  wood  or  strong  pasteboard  ;  some  with, 
and  others  without  printed  descriptions  beneath;  to  be 
suspended  at  appropriate  times  on  the  lesson  stands,  for 
class  exercises,  and  at  other  times;  on  the  walls,  or  deposited 
in  their  appropriate  places. 

In  this  list  should  be  included  the  numeration  table,  ta 
bles  for  reading  arithmetical  marks,  easy  lessons,  geometri 
cal  figures,  punctuation  marks,  outline  maps;  &c. 


SCHOOL  APPARATUS.  335 

Allen's  Education  Table  will  be  found  very  useful  in  teaching  the  Alphabet, 
Spelling,  Reading,  and  Arithmetic,  to  little  children  at  home,  and  in  Pri- 
mary Schools. 


Allen's  EDUCATION  TABLF.  consists  of  a  board  or  table,  along  the  centre  of 
which  are  horizontal  grooves,  or  raised  ledges  forming  grooves  between  them, 
that  connect  \vith  perpendicular  grooves  or  compartments  on  the  sides,  in 
which  are  inserted  an  assortment  of  movable  blocks,  on  the  face  of  which  are 
cut  the  letters  of  the  alphabet,  both  capitals  and  small,  the  nine  digits  and 
cipher,  and  all  the  usual  pauses  and  signs  used  in  composition  and  arithmetic. 

The  letters,  figures  and  signs  are  large,  so  as  to  be  readily  recognized  by  ail 
the  members  of  a  large  class,  and  from  even  the  extremity  of  a  large  schooi- 
room,  and  are  so  assorted  and  arranged  as  to  be  easily  slid 'from  the  perpendic- 
ular grooves  or  compartments  into  the  horizontal  grooves,  and  there  combined 
into  syllables,  words  and  sentences,  or  used  in  simple  arithmetical  operations. 
When  the  lesson  in  the  alphabet,  spelling,  reading,  composition,  or  arithmetic, 
is  finished,  the  blocks  can  be  returned  to  their  appropriate  places. 

The  experience  of  many  teachers  in  schools  of  different  grades,  and  of  many 
mothers  at  home,  (the  God-appointed  school  for  little  children,  next  to  which 
should  be  ranked  the  well  organized  Primary  School,  with  a  bright,  gentle, 
affectionate  and  patient  female  teacher.)  has  demonstrated  that  by  accustoming 
the  child,  either  individually,  or  in  a  class,  to  select  letter  by  letter,  and  move 
them  from  their  appropriate  case  to  the  centre  of  the  board,  and  there  combin- 
ing them  into  syllables  and  words,  a  knowledge  of  the  alphabet,  and  of  wordy, 
is  acquired  in  a  much  shorter  time  and  in  a  much  more  impressive  and  agree- 
able manner,  than  by  any  of  even  the  best  methods  now  pursued. 

All  of  the  advantages  derived  from  the  method  of  dictation,  and  the  use  of  the 
slate  and  blackboard,  in  teaching  children  the  alphabet,  spelling,  reading,  and 
the  use  of  capital  letters  and  pauses,  as  well  as  the  elementary  principles  of 
arithmetic,  such  as  numeration,  addition,  subtraction,  &c.,  can  be  secured  by 
the  introduction  of  this  Table  into  our  Primary  and  District  Schools. 

Manufactured  by  EDWIN  ALLEN  only,  WindJiam,  Conn.,  icho  will 
promptly  attend  to  all  orders  for  them.. 


£86 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


A  Moveable  Black-board,  or  prepared  black  surface  ot  considerable  extent,  is 
indispensable. 

The  upper  portion  of  the  standing  blackboard  should  be  inclined  back  a 
little  from  the  perpendicular,  and  along  the  lower  edge  there  should  be  a  pro- 
jection or  trough  to  catch  the  particles  detached  from  the  chalk  or  crayon 
when  in  use,  and  a  drawer  to  receive  the  sponge,  cloth,  lamb's-skin,  or  other 
soft  article  used  in  cleaning  the  surface  of  the  board. 

Blackboards,  even  when  made  with  great  care,  and  of  the  best  seasoned 
materials,  are  liable  to  injury  and  defacement  from  warping,  opening  of  seams, 
or  splitting  when  exposed  to  the  overheated  atmosphere  of  school-rooms, 
unless  they  are  set  in  a  frame  like  a  slate,  or  the  panel  of  a  door. 

By  the  following  ingenious,  and  cheap  contrivance,  a  few  feet  of  board  can 
be  converted  into  a  table,  a  sloping  desk,  one  or  two  blackboards,  and  a  form 
or  seat,  and  the  whole  folded  up  so  as  not  to  occupy  a  space  more  than  five 
inches  wide,  and  be  easily  moved  from  one  room  to  another,  it  is  equally 
well  adapted  to  a  school-room,  class-room,  library  or  nursery. 

ff  Under  side  of  the 
swinging  board,  sus- 
ponded  by  rule-joint 
hinges,  when  turned  up, 


dark 


1-0, 

painted  black 
chocolate. 

a  d  Folding  brackets, 
inclined  at  an  angle  of 
75  degrees,  and  swung 
out  to  support  the  board 
when  a  sloping  desk  is 
required. 

b  c  Folding  brackets 
to  support  the  swinging 
board  when  a  bench  or 
flat  table  is  required. 

eeee  Uprights  attached  to  the  wall. 

g  g  Form  to  be  used  when  the  swinging  board  is  let  down,  and  to  be  sup- 
ported by  folding  legs.  The  under  side  can  be  used  as  a  blackboard  for  small 
children. 

h  A  wooden  button  to  retain  the  swinging  board  when  turned  up  for  use  as 
a  blackboard. 

n  Opening  to  receive  n 

inkstands,  and  deposit 
for  slate,  pencil,  chalk, 
&c. 

m  Surface  of  swing- 
ing board  when  let 
down. 

I  Surface  of  form  or 
bench. 

When  not  in  use,  or  let  down,  the  desk  and  form  should  hang  flush  with 
each  other. 

A  cheap  movable  blackboard  can  be  made  after  the  following  cut  (Fig.  3. 


m 


8ft.  7in, 


SCHOOL  APPARATUa 


387 


A  movable  stand  to  support  a  blackboard 
may  be  made  like  a  painter's  easel,  as  repre- 
sented in  the  accompanying  cut. 

«,  Pins  for  board  to  rest  on.  c,  Hinge  or 
joint  to  the  supporting  legs,  which  are  braced 
by  hook  £,  and  may  be  folded  up,  and  the  stand 
put  away  in  a  closet.  A  stand  of  this  kind  is 
convenient  to  display  outline  and  other  maps, 
reading  lessons  and  other  diagrams. 


may  be  made  as  represented  in  the 
accompanying  cut.  An  upright  frame, 
strongly  braced  by  cross-pieces  (a)  is  in- 
serted into  the  feet  (b.)  or  horizontal  sup- 
ports having  castors,  on  which  the  whole 
may  be  rolled  on  the  floor.  Within 
grooves  on  the  inside  of  this  upright 
frame  is  a  smaller  frame  (c)  hung  by  a 
cord  which  passes  over  a  pulley  (<?,)  and 
is  so  balanced  by  weights,  concealed  in 
the  upright  parts,  as  to  admit  of  being 
raised  or  lowered  conveniently.  Within 
this  inner  frame  is  hung  the  blackboard 
on  pivots,  by  which  the  surface  of  the 
board  can  be  inclined  from  a  perpendic- 
ular. 


A  cheaper  movable  frame,  with  a  blackboard  suspended  on    a  pivct, 

can  be  made  as  represented  in  the 
lower  diagram.  The  feet,  if  made 
as  represented  in  this  cut,  will  be 
liable  to  get  broken. 

Composition  for  Blackboards. 
Lampblack  and    flour  of  emery 
mixed  with  spirit-varnish. 

No  more  lampblack  and  flour  of 
emery  should  be  used  than  are  suf- 
ficient to  give  the  required  black 
and  abrading  surface  ;  and  the  var- 
nish should  contain  only  sufficient 
gum  to  hold  the  ingredients  togeth- 
er, and  confine  the  composition  to 
the  board.  The  thinner  the  mix- 
ture, the  better. 

The  lampblack  should  first  be 
ground  with  a  small  quantity  of  al- 
cohol, or  spirit-varnish,  to  iiee  it 
from  lumps. 

The  composition  should  be  appli- 
ed to  the  smoothly-planed   surface 
of  the  board,   with   a  common  painter's  brush.     Let  it  become  thoroughly 
dry  and  hard  before  it  is  used.     Rub  it  down  with  pumice-stone,  or  a  piece 
of  smooth  wood  covered  with  the  composition. 
This  composition  may  also  be  used  on  the  walls. 


388  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

Slate  Blackboard. 

In  the  class-rooms  of  the  American  Asylum  for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb,  and 
all  similar  institutions,  where  most  of  the  instruction  is  given  by  writing,  and 
drawings  on  the  blackboard,  large  slates  from  three  feet  wide,  to  four  feet 
long  are  substituted  for  the  blackboard.  These  slates  cost  from  $'2  to  $3, 
and  are  superior  to  any  other  form  of  blackboard,  and  in  a  series  of  years 
prove  more  economical. 

Plaster  Blackboard. 

As  a  substitute  for  the  painted  board,  it  is  common  to  paint  black  a  portion 
of  the  plastered  wall  when  covered  with  hard  finish,  (i.  e.  plaster  of  Paris  and 
sand  ;)  or  to  color  it  by  mixing  with  the  hard  finish  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
lamp-black,  wet  with  alcohol,  at  the  time  of  putting  it  on.  The  hard  finish, 
colored  in  this  way,  can  be  put  on  to  an  old,  as  well  as  to  a  new  surface. 
Unless  the  lamp-black  is  wet  with  alcohol,  or  sour  beer,  it  will  not  mix  uni- 
formly with  the  hard  finish,  and  when  dry,  the  surface,  instead  of  being  a 
uniform  black,  will  present  a  spotted  appearance. 

Canvas  Blackboard. 

Every  teacher  can  provide  himself  with  a  portable  blackboard  made  of 
canvas  cloth,  3  feet  wide  and  6  feet  long,  covered  with  three  or  four  coats 
of  black  paint,  like  Winchester's  Writing  Charts.  One  side  might,  like 
this  chart,  present  the  elements  of  the  written  characters  classified  in  the 
order  of  their  simplicity,  and  guide-marks  to  enable  a  child  to  determine  with 
ease  the  height,  width,  and  inclination  of  every  letter.  Below,  on  the  same 
side,  might  be  ruled  the  musical  scale,  leaving  sufficient  space  to  receive 
such  characters  as  may  be  required  to  illustrate  lessons  in  music.  The  oppo- 
site side  can  be  used  for  the  ordinary  purposes  of  a  blackboard.  When  rolled 
up,  the  canvas  would  occupy  a  space  three  feet  long,  and  not  more  than  three 
inches  in  diameter. 

Directions  for  making  Crayons. 

A  school,  or  the  schools  of  a  town,  may  be  supplied  with  crayons  very 
cheaply,  made  after  the  following  directions  given  by  Professor  Turner  of 
the  American  Asylum  for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb. 

Take  5  pounds  of  Paris  White,  1  pound  of  Wheat  Flour,  wet  with  water, 
and  knead  it  well,  make  it  so  stiff  that  it  will  not  stick  to  the  table,  but  not  so 
stiff  as  to  crumble  and  fall  to  pieces  when  it  is  rolled  under  the  hand. 

To  roll  out  the  crayons  to  the  proper  size,  two  boards  are  needed,  0ne,  to 
roll  them  on ;  the  other  to  roll  them  with.  The  first  should  be  a  smooth  pine 
board,  three  feet  long,  and  nine  inches  wide.  The  other  should  also  be  pine, 
a  foot  long,  and  nine  inches  wide,  having  nailed  on  the  under  side,  near  each 
edge,  a  slip  of  wood  one  third  of  an  inch  thick,  in  order  to  raise  it  so  much 
above  the  under  board,  as,  that  the  crayon,  when  brought  to  its  proper  size, 
may  lie  between  them  without  being  flattened. 

The  mass  is  rolled  into  a  ball,  and  slices  are  cut  from  one  side  of  it  about 
one  third  of  an  inch  thick ;  these  slices  are  again  cut  into  strips  about  four 
inches  long  and  one  third  of  an  inch  wide,  and  rolled  separately  between 
these  boards  until  smooth  and  round. 

Near  at  hand,  should  be  another  board  3  feet  long  and  4  inches  wide,  across 
which  each  crayon,  as  it  is  made,  should  be  laid  so  that  the  ends  may  pro- 
ject on  each  side— the  crayons  should  be  laid  in  close  contact  and  straight. 
When  the  board  is  filled,  the  ends  should  be  trimmed  off  so  as  to  make  tjie 
crayons  as  long  as  the  width  of  the  board.  It  is  then  laid  in  the  sun,  if  in 
hot  weather,  or  if  in  winter,  near  a  stove  or  fire-place,  where  the  crayona 
may  dry  gradually,  which  will  require  twelve  hours.  When  thoroughly  dry, 
they  are  fit  for  use. 

An  experienced  hand  will  make  150  in  an  hour. 


SCHOOL  APPARATUS.  ggg 

We  are  indebted  to  Prof.  Cook,  of  Rutgers  College,  New  Jersey,  for  the  follow- 
ing directions  for  making  crayons  which  he  6nds,  after  long  trial  better  for  the 
uses  of  the  black-board,  than  those  made  after  the  direction  of  Prof.  Turner,  or 
than  those  imported  from  Europe. 

Take  five  pounds  of  whiting,  four  pounds  of  boiled  plaster,  and  water  enough  to 
make  the  whole  into  a  moderately  thin  paste.  Mix  these  thoroughly  and  quickly. 
This  compound  will  harden  in  a  few  minutes,  when  it  may  be  dried  and  sawed 
into  crayons. 

Bolted  Paris  white  is  the  best  whiting,  but  the  common  kind  may  be  used  if 
care  is  taken  to  dry  and  pulverize  it.  The  plaster  used  by  masons,  is- sufficiently 
good.  It  should  be  fresh  boiled.  As  it  is  the  hardening  ingredient  in  the  com- 
pound, the  crayons  may  be  made  more  or  less  hard,  by  slightly  increasing  or  di- 
minishing the  amount  mentioned  above. 

The  vessel  in  which  the  mixture  is  made,  should  be  greased  before  using,  to 
prevent  adhesion.  Any  convenient  one  may  be  used,  but  a  square  or  oblong  box 
would  be  found  most  economical.  The  mixture  is  best  dried  at  a  common  tem- 
perature ;  if  artificial  heat  is  used,  it  should  not  exceed  that  of  boiling  water. 

Crayons  made  in  this  way  are  better  than  many  of  those  found  in  market,  and 
the  materials  from  which  they  are  made  are  both  cheap  and  common.  The  square 
form,  produced  by  sawing,  is  better  for  writing  than  the  round. 

Plaster  Black  Wall. 

The  following  directions  may  be  safely  followed  in  making  plaster  black  wall. 

In  the  first  place,  the  scratch  coat,  made  with  coarse  sand,  is  spread  upon  the 
laths  as  usual,  and  the  brown  coat  follows,  being  left  a  little  rough  under  the 
"  float."  When  the  brown  coat  is  perfectly  dry,  the  black  coat  is  laid  on. 

This  is  prepared  of  mason's  "  putty"  and  ground  plaster  and  beach  sand,  mixed 
in  the  usual  proportions  for  hard  finish.  The  coloring  matter  is  lamp-black,  wet 
with  alcohol  or  whiskey,  forming  a  mixture  of  the  consistency  of  paste.  This  is 
mixed  with  the  other  ingredients  just  as  they  are  about  to  be  spread  upon  the  walL 
The  quantity  of  coloring  to  be  used  must  be  sufficient  to  make  a  black  surface  ; 
the  sufficiency  being  determined  by  experiment — no  rule  can  be  given.  An  in- 
telligent mason  can  very  soon  try  experiments  so  as  to  insure  success.  It  is  to  be 
remembered  that  the  black  surface  requires  much  more  working  with  the  smooth- 
ing trowel  than  ordinary  white  finish.  It  should  be  finished  by  being  softly 
smoothed  with  a  wet  brush.  When  perfectly  dry,  it  is  nearly  as  hard  as  slate,  and 
almost  as  durable,  if  carefully  used.  Great  care  should  be  taken  not  to  put  in  too 
much  lamp-black. 

In  building  a  new  school-house  it  would  be  well  to  have  a  belt  of  this  black  sur- 
face pass  entirely  around  the  room,  at  the  proper  height.  In  a  common  school, 
when  small  children  are  to  use  it,  its  lower  edge  should  be  about  two  feet  from  the 
floor,  extending  thence  upward  from  3  to  5^  feet.  At  the  lower  edge  there  should 
be  a  "  chalk  trough,"  extending  the  whole'length,  made  by  nailing  a  thin  strip  of 
board  to  the  plank,  which  bounds  the  black-board,  leaving  a  trough  two  inches  in 
width  and  depth,  in  which  to  place  the  chalk,  brushes,  pointers,  &c. ;  this  will 
also  catch  the  dust  which  is  wiped  from  the  board.  The  upper  edge  should  be 
bounded  by  a  simple  moulding. 

The  best  thing  for  removing  the  chalk  from  the  board  is  a  brush,  made  of  the 
size  of  a  shoe-brush,  with  the  wooden  handle  on  the  back,  the  face  being  covered 
with  a  sheep-skin  with  the  wool  on.  This  removes  the  chalk  at  a  single  sweep, 
without  wearing  the  surface,  and  without  soiling  the  hand  of  the  operator.  This  is  a 
great  improvement  over  a  dust-cloth  or  a  sponge. 

In  all  cases  let  the  board  be  kept  dry  5  never  allow  a  pupil  to  wet  the  wiper 
when  removing  the  chalk. 

By  long  use,  especially  if  the  surface  is  ever  cleaned  with  a  wet  wiper,  this  kind 
of  black-board  becomes  too  smooth  and  glossy  upon  the  surface  ;  the  chalk  passes 
over  it  without  taking  effect,  and  the  light  is  reflected  by  it.  A  very  simple  wash, 
applied  with  a  soft  brush,  will  immediately  restore  it ;  this  wash  is  made  by  dis- 
solving one  part  of  glue,  to  two  parts  of  alum  in  water,  so  as  to  make  a  very  thin 
solution.  It  is  well  to  have  the  wash  slightly  colored  with  lamp-black.  Care  must 
be  taken  that  this  wash  do  not  have  too 'much  "  body." 


390 


SCHOOL  APPARATUS. 


•  A  map  exhibitor,  consisting  of  a  movable  cross,  (c)  may  be  attached  to  a  stand 
or  easel,  by  being  let  into  a  groove,  cut  in  the  form  of  a 
dove-tail  at  the  back  (a)  of  the  easel,  just  above  the  part 
vvhere  the  movable  leg  is  hinged.  To  suit  the  varying 
breadth  of  maps,  the  pins  or  hooks  for  holding  them  may 
be  made  to  slide  in  a  groove  in  the  cross  or  horizontal  part 
of  the  exhibitor.  The  same  contrivance,  the  sliding  hook, 
may  be  applied  to  a  groove  in  a  board  or  slip  of  board,  on 
the  side  or  end  of  the  school-room,  at  the  proper  elevation, 
for  the  purpose  of  displaying  maps  or  charts. 

As  ink  must  be  provided  in  all  schools,  except  those  of 
the  infant  and  primary  grade,  the  material  and  shape  of  the 
pot  or  well  to  hold  the  ink,  and  the  mode  of  inserting  the  same  in  the  desk,  and 
covering  the  mouth  or  top,  so  as  to  exclude  dust  and  prevent  evaporation,  are 
points  of  considerable  practical  importance. 

The  inside  material  or  lining  should  be  glass,  to  prevent  the  ink  being  injured 
by  corrosion.  The  conical  shape,  with  a  projecting  rim  slightly  inclined  towards 
the  opening,  will  be  found  to  have  many  advantages — such  as  facilitating  its  in- 
sertion in  the  desk,  or  the  tray — the  dip  of  the  pen,  without  touching  the  side  of 
the  pot  or  well — the  catching  of  any  excess  of  ink  thrown  or  jerked  back  by  the 
writer,  or  thrown  out  by  any  sudden  jar  of  the  desk.  Glass  ink  wells  of  various 
patterns  can  now  be  obtained  at  the  principal  crockery  dealers,  and  are  always 
furnished  by  the  manufacturers  of  first  class  desks.* 

The  ink  well  should  be  movable,  for  convenience  of  rilling  and  cleansing  of 
sediment,  and  also  for  being  emptied  of  ink  when  not  in  use,  or  of  being  emptied 
or  removed,  to  avoid  freezing  in  winter. 

Each  desk  should  bo 
provided  with  a  mova- 
ble ink  well,  inserted  in 
a  cast  iron  or  other  me- 
talic  box  having  a  cover, 
the  box  being  set  in,  and 
secured  firmly  to  the 
desk.  The  opening  in 
a  glass  ink  well,  when 

not  in  use,  will  be  protected  by  the  lid,  and  the 
well  itself  can  be  removed  for  convenience  in 
filling,  cleansing,  and  emptying. 


A  Tray  for  Ink  Wells,  made  of  tin,  of  annexed  con- 
struction, will  be  found  very  useful  to  collect  the  wells 
when  not  in  use,  or  when  they  are  removed  for  cleansing 
or  other  purposes. 

A  Sponge  Box,  for  damping  sponge  without  exposing  the  surface  of  the  water, 
may  be  constructed  after  the  following  drawing  from  Richson's 
School  Building  Guide.  To  any  desk  standard  (A)  attach  a 
jx  (D)  lined  with  lead.  On  the  inside  of  the  box  place  a  sloping 
cover,  (C)  lined  on  both  sides  with  lead,  having  at  the  lower  end 
two  rows  of  perforations,  and  in  the  upper  a  broad  slit  or  open- 
ing. Through  this  slit  pass  a  strip  of  woolen  list  or  flannel,  one 
end  (77)  of  which  shall  be  in  the  water  and  the  other  extend  to  the 
peiforations  in  the  cover.  The  water  which  is  taken  up  by  the 
woolen  strip,  will  filter  down  the  inclined  plane,  and  pass  again 
into  the  box  through  the  perforations.  The  surface  of  the  strip 
will  be  kept  sufficiently  wet  to  damp  a  sponge  without  allowing 
the  water  to  be  exposed  in  the  box. 

*  J.  L.  Ross,  corner  of  Ivers  and  Hawkins  streets,  Boston,  has  a  very  neat  style  of  ink  well, 
box.  and  cover,  as  illustrated  on  pa?es  371  and  372.  Mr.  Ross  is  also  the  a^ent  of  the  Cas- 
tleton  Slate  Company,  and  can  furnish  slates  planed  by  machinery  to  a  perfectly  smooth  sur- 
face, of  any  required  dimensions,  from  eight  feet  long  by  five  wide,  and  three-fourths  of  aa 
inch  thick,  to  any  smaller  size. 


SCHOOL  APPARATUS-  391 

The  Goni graph  is  a  small  instrument  composed  of  a  number  of  flat  rode 
connected  by  pivots,  which  can  be  put  into  all  possible  geometrical  figures 
that  Consist  of  straight  lines  and  angles,  as  triangles,  squares,  pentagons, 
hexagons,  octagons,  &c. 


AAAAAA 


The  Arilhmeticon,  represented  in  the  annexed  cut,  is  a  most  useful  in- 
strument. In  an  oblong  open  frame,  twelve  rows  of  wooden  balls,  alter- 
nately black  and  white,  and  of  the  size  of  a  nutmeg  or  small  walnut,  and 
twelve  in  each  row,  are  strung  like  beads  on  strong  wires.  The  instru- 
ment, when  fixed  to  a  stand,  is  about  four  feet  high,  the  frame  being  one- 
fourth  part  broader  than  it  is  high.  It  may  be  made  much  smaller,  as 
in  the  cut.  When  it  is  used  to  exercise  the  children  in  arithmetic,  the 
teacher  or  monitor  stands  behind,  and  slides  the  balls  along  the  wires  from 
his  left;  to  his  right,  calling  out  tha  number  he  shifts,  as,  twice  two  are 
four,  thrice  two  are  six,  shifting  first  four  balls,  and  then  two  more.  A§ 
the  children  are  apt  to  confuse  the  balls  remaining  with  those  shifted,  a 
thin  board  covers  half  the  surface  on  the  side  next  the  children,  as  marked 
by  a  line  down  the  centre,  so  that  they  see  only  the  balls  shifted  to  the 
open  side. 


NUMERAL  FRAME. 


SS2 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


The  Arithmeticon  or  Numeral  Frame  represented  in  the  foregoing  cut  forms  a 
part  of  Holbrookes  Common  School  Apparatus,  which  embraces,  in  addition,  the 
following  articles. 

For  showing  the  figures,  names,  properties,  and  uses  of  various  Geometrical 
Forms  and  Solids,  the  following  blocks  are  made,  accompanied  with  a  sheet  of 
diagrams. 


CUBES. 


PARALLELOPIPKDS. 


SCHOOL  APPARA 


OBLATE  SPHEROID. 


SPHERE.  PROLATE  SPHEROID. 


HEXAGONAL  PRISM.          PRISM.  TRIANGULAR  PRISM.        CYLINDER 


PYRAMID  AND  FRUSTRUM. 


CONK  AND  FRUSTRUM. 


394  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

A  Sectional  Block,  to  illustrate  the  extraction  of  the  cube  root 


BLOCK  TO  ILLUSTRATE  CUBE  ROOT. 


Accompanying  this  set  is  a  Drawing  Slate,  designed  particularly  for  young 
pupils.  On  the  frame  are  a  set  of  copies  for  writing  and  drawing,  which  are  pro- 
tected from  injury  in  consequence  of  friction  on  the  desk  by  cushions  made  of 
India  rubber  inserted  in  each  corner.  This  slate  is  equally  well  adapted  for  the 
older  pupils,  and  for  all  arithmetical  operations,  and  its  use  is  accompanied  with 
less  noise  than  any  other  form  of  slate. 


DRAWING  SLATB. 


SCHOOL  APPARATUS. 


395 


A  Terrestrial  Globe,  made  of  solid,  firm  material,  and  so  mounted  on  a  simple 
pedestal  that  it  can  be  readily  removed,  and  suspended  by  a  cord — and  thus  be 
held  in  the  hand,  and  displayed  conveniently  for  familiar  illustrations  to  a  class. 
They  are  made  from  five  to  eight  inches  in  diameter. 


TERRESTRIAL  GLOBE. 


A  Hemisphere  Globe,  cut  in  equal  sections,  and  opening  on  a  hinge,  will  solve 
at  a  glance  many  of  the  difficulties  encountered  by  young  pupils  in  the  study  of 
geography,  and  correct  some  fundamentally  erroneous  conceptions  which  even 
older  scholars  are  liable  to  form  of  latitude  and  longitude,  or  from  an  exclusive 
use  of  maps. 


HEMISPHERE  GLOBE. 


396 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


The  Tellurian  is  designed  to  illustrate  all  the  phenomena  resulting  from  the 
relations  of  the  Sun,  Moon,  and  Earth,  to  each  other — the  succession  of  day  and 
night,  the  change  of  the  seasons,  the  change  of  the  sun's  declination,  the  different 
lengths  of  day  and  night,  the  changes  of  the  moon,  the  harvest  moon,  the  preces- 
sion of  the  equinoxes,  the  differences  of  a  solar  and  siderial  year,  &c.,  &c. 


TELLURIAN. 


The  Planetarium  or  Orrery,  gives  the  proportionate  size  and  relative  positions, 
and  annual  revolutions  of  the  planets,  composing  the  solar  system,  except  the 
asteroids. 


PLANETARIUM. 


BCHOOL  APPARATUS. 


397 


Holbrookes  Common  School  Apparatus,  is  manufactured  by  the  HOLBROOK 
SCHOOL  APPARATUS  MANUFACTURING  COMPANY,  at  Hartford,  Conn.,  and  sold, 
securely  packed  for  transportation,  with  a  manual  or  text-book  for  the  use  of  the 
teacher,  for  $20.00  a  set. 

APPARATUS  FOR  GRAMMAR  SCHOOLS. 

The  School  Committee  of  Boston,  in  1847.  adopted  the  following  arti- 
cles as  a  set  of  Philosophical  Apparatus  for  the  Grammar  schools,  which 
was  selected  and  classified  by  Mr.  Wightman,  whose  long  experience  in 
manufacturing  apparatus  for  schools  of  every  grade,  admirably  qualified 
him  for  the  work  : 


Laics  of  Matter. 

Apparatus  for  illustrating  Inertia. 

Pair  of  Lead  Hemispheres,  for  Co- 
hesion. 

Pair  of  Glass  Plates,  for  Capillary 
Attraction. 

Laws  of  Motion. 

Ivory  Balls  on  Stand,  for  Collision. 
Set  of  eight  illustrations  for  Centre 

of  Gravity. 
Sliding  Frame,  for  Composition  of 

Forces. 
Apparatus  for  illustrating  Central 

Forces. 

Mechanics. 

Complete  set  of  Mechanicals,  con- 
sisting of  Pulleys ;  Wheel  and 
Axle ;  Capstan ;  Screw ;  Inclined 
Plane ;  Wedge. 

Hydrostatics. 

Bent  Glass  Tube,  for  Fluid  Level. 
Mounted  Spirit  Level. 
Hydrometer  and  Jar,  for   Specific 

Gravity. 
Scales  and   Weights,  for   Specific 

Gravity. 
Hydrostatic  Bellows,  and  Paradox. 

Hydraulics. 

Lifting,  or  Common  Water  Pump. 
Forcing  Pump;  illustrating  the  Fire 

Engine. 
Glass  Syphon  Cup ;  for  illustrating 

Intermitting  Springs. 
Glass  and  Metal  Syphons. 


Pneumatics. 

Patent  Lever  Air  Pump  and  Clamp. 
Three  Glass  Bell  Receivers,  adapt- 
ed to  the  Apparatus. 
Condensing  and  Exhausting  Syp- 

inge. 
Copper  Chamber,   for  Condensed 

Air  Fountain. 

Revolving  Jet  and  Glass  Barrel. 
Fountain  Glass,  Cock,  and  Jet  for 

Vacuum. 

Brass  Magdeburg  Hemispheres. 
Improved  Weight  Lifter  for  upward 

pressure. 
Iron  Weight  of  56  Ibs.  and  Strap 

Flexible  Tube  and  Connectors 

for  Weight  Lifter. 
Brass  Plate  and  Sliding  Rod. 
Bolt  Head  and  Jar. 
Tall  Jar  and  Balloon. 
Hand  and  Bladder  Glasses. 
Wood  Cylinder  and  Plate. 
India  Rubber  Bag,  for  expansion  of 

air. 

Guinea  and  Feather  Apparatus. 
Glass   Flask    and   Stop-Cock,    for 

weighing  air. 

Electricity. 

Plate  Electrical  Machine. 
Pith  Ball  Electrometer. 
Electrical  Battery  of  four  Jars. 
Electrical  Discharger. 
Image  Plates  and  Figure. 
Insulated   Stool. 
Chime   of  Bells. 
Miser's  Plate,  for  shocks. 
Tissue  Figure,  Ball  and  Point. 
Electrical  Flyer  and  Tellurian. 
Electrical  Sportsman,  Jar  and  Birda 
Mahogany    Thunder    House    and 
Pistol 


398 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


Hydrogen  Gas  Generator. 
Chains,  Balls  of  Pith,  and  Amal- 


gam. 


Optics. 


Astronomy. 

Improved  School  Orrery. 
Tellurian,  or,  Season  Machine. 

Arithmetic,  and  Geometry. 

Set  of  13  Geometrical  Figures  of 

Solids. 
Box  of  64  one  inch  Cubes,  fur  Cube 

Root,  &c. 

Auxiliaries. 

Tin  Oiler. 
Glass  Funnel. 
Sulphuric  Acid. 

Set  of  Iron  Weights  for  Hydrostatic 
Paradox. 

The  foregoing  Set  is  fully  illustrated  in  "  Wightman's  Select  Experiments," 
a  valuable  manual  for  the  teacher. 


Glass  Prism ;  and  pair  of  Lenses. 
Dissected   Eye   Ball,    showing  its 
arrangement. 

Magnetism. 

Magnetic  Needle  on  Stand. 
Pair  of  Magnetic  Swans. 
Glass  Vase  for  Magnetic  Swans. 
Horseshoe  Magnet. 


The  following  illustrations  of  some  of  the  articles  enumerated  in  the  above 
list,  are  taken  from  "  Wightman's  Illustrated  Catalogue,"  which  persons  select- 
ing apparatus  will  do  well  to  consult  before  making  their  purchases.  The  ad- 
dress is  Joseph  M.  Wightman,  No.  33  Cornhill,  Boston,  Mass. 

LAWS  OF  MATTER  AND  MOTION. 


INERTIA  APPARATUS. 

This  Figure  represents  a  very  con- 
venient apparatus  for  illustrating  In- 
ertia, a  stiff  card  being  projected  by 
the  spring,  and  leaving  the  ball  upon 
the  pillar. 


COLLISION  BALLS  AND  STAND. 


SCHOOL  APPARATUS, 


399 


MECHANICALS. 


PULLEYS,  WHEEL  AND  AXLE,  CAPSTAN. 


SIMPLE  AND  COMPOUND  LBYBBS. 


SCEBW. 


INCLINED  PLANE. 


WEDOB. 


400 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


HYDROSTATICS. 


WIQHTMAN'S  HYDROSTATIC  BELLOWS  AND  PARADOX. 


HYDRAULICS. 


MODELS  OF  WATER  PUMPS. 


SCHOOL  APPARATUS. 
PNEUMATICS. 


PATENT  PORTABLE  Aia  PUMP. 


BOLT  HEAD 
EXPERIMENT. 


FOUNTAIN  IN  VACUO. 
26 


WIGHTMAN'S  WEIGHT  LIFTER. 


402 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

ELECTRICITY. 


PLATE  ELECTRICAL  MACHINE. 


ELECTRICAL  SPORTSMAN. 


DANCINQ  IMAGES. 


o* 

CHIME  OF  BELLS. 


ELECTRICAL  BATTERY. 


MISER'S  PLATB. 


CATALOGUE 

OF 

GLOBES  AND  SETS  OF  SCHOOL  APPARATUS, 

MANUFACTURED    AND   SOLD    BY 

BENJAMIN  PIKE,  JR.,  294  BROADWAY,  NEW  YORK, 

[The  fallowing  Catalogue  is  compiled  from  a  valuable  work,  in  two  volumes, 
entitled  "  Optical,  Mathematical,  and  Philosophical  Instruments  Illustrated  and 
Described,  by  Benj.  Pike,  Jr.,"  which  every  purchaser  of  School  Apparatus  should 
consult  before  making  his  selections  of  articles.] 


The  artificial  globe  is  a  round  body  or  sphere,  having  on  its  surface  a  map  of  the 
earth,  or  of  the  celestial  constellations,  as  delineated,  with  the  principal  circles  of 
the  sphere.  In  the  former  case  it  is  called  the  terrestrial — in  the  latter  the  celestial 
globe.  Artificial  globes  are  used  for  the  purpose  of  conveying  to  young  persons 
the  first  ideas  of  the  figure  and  rotation  of  the  earth,  of  latitude  and  longitude,  and 
the  situation  of  places  with  respect  to  each  other,  and  to  the  sun  at  different  seasons 
of  the  year.  It  is  usual  to  employ  them  also  for  the  purpose  of  solving  mechanically 
elementary  problems  of  astronomy,  relative  to  the  difference  of  the  hour  of  the  day 
at  different  places ;  the  times  of  the  rising  and  setting  of  the  sun ;  the  limits  of  the 
visibility  of  eclipses,  etc. 

The  fundamental  parts  of  these  instruments  which  are  common  to  both,  are,  first, 
the  two  poles  whereon  the  globe  is  supported,  representing  those  of  the  world; 
second,  the  brazen  meridian,  which  is  divided  into  degrees,  and  passes  throngh  the 
poles;  third,  the  wooden  horizon,  whose  upper  side  represents  the  real  horizon,  and 
is  divided  into  several  circles;  fourth,  a  brass  quadrant  of  altitude;  fifth,  two  hour 
circles,  one  moving  round  each  pole  as  a  centre,  and  divided  into  twice  twelve 
hours,  to  indicate  those  of  the  day  and  night.  Upon  the  surface  of  the  globes  are 
depicted  the  lines  of  latitude  and  longitude,  the  equator,  ecliptic,  tropics,  and  polar 
circles.  On  one  globe,  in  addition  to  these,  are  the  various  countries,  seas,  etc.,  of 
the  world;  and  on  the  other,  the  stars  in  their  relative  positions. 

Terrestrial  and  Celestial  Globes,  9,  12,  18,  and  36  inches  diameter,  made  by 
MALBY  &  Sox,  London,  under  the  superintendence  of  the  Society  for  the  Diffusion 
of  Useful  Knowledge. 

.     9-inch  Globes,  Celestial  and  Terrestrial  (the  pair),    $16  00 
12-inch       "  "  "  "  20  00 

18-inch       "  "  "  «  48  00 

36-inch       "  "  "  «  200  00 

A  Globe  Quadrant  accompanies  each  pair. 
18-inch  Terrestrial  Globe,      -      $25  00  |  36-inch  Terrestrial  Globe,     -     $105  00 


404 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


In  these  globes  an  endeavor  has  been  made  to  combine  a  degree  of  accuirvcy 
such  as  is  only  possessed  by  the  best  modern  maps,  with  the  lowest  price  at  which 
excellence  can  be  attained.  The  terrestrial  globe  has  been  compiled  from  the  most  re- 
cent geographical  surveys,  with  the  aid  of  the  accounts  given  by  the  best  travellers. 

The  astronomical  information  which  has  been  supplied  of  late  years  upon  the 
position  and  nomenclature  of  the  fixed  stars,  has  rendered  a  perfectly  new  celestial 
globe  a  most  desirable  acquisition  to  the  student  of  astronomy.  The  labors  of 
Piazzi,  Bradley,  Lacaille,  Johnson,  &c.,  in  determining  the  places  of  the  stars,  and 
those  of  Daily  in  the  correction  of  their  nomenclature  (in  the  new  edition  of  the 
"British  Catalogue"),  have  been  carefully  consulted  in  the  celestial  globe  which  is 
now  advertised.  The  stars  in  the  northern  hemisphere  are  all  which  are  given  by 
Piazzi,  with  the  addition  of  such  of  Bradley's  (from  the  Tabulae  Regiomontanae)  as 
are  not  in  Piazzi.  The  stars  in  the  southern  hemisphere  comprise  all  those  given 
by  Lacaille  and  Johnson. 

SLATE  GLOBES. 
Malby's  12-inch  Slate  Globe,  $10  00— 18-inch  Slate  Globe,  $25  00. 

AMERICAN  GLOBES. 

3-inch  Terrestrial  Globe,  $  I— 5-inch  do.,  $1  50 

9-inch  Terrestrial  Globe,  -  •  8  00 

10-inch  "  "  -  10  00 

13-inch  "  "  -  -  -  13  00 


9-inch  Celes.  and  Terres.  Globes  (pair),  $1G  Oft 
10-inch      "  "  "          "         18  00 

13-inch      "  "  "          "         25  00 

16-inch      "  "  "         "        40  00 


Terrestrial  Globes   on  neat  mahogany  bases,  inclined    axis,   without   horizon — 
3-inch,  75  cts.;  5-inch,  $1  25;  7-inch,  $3  25. 


ENGLISH  PEDESTAL  GLOBES  (very  neat). 


3-inch  (tho  pair), 
5-inch,        , 


$3  50 
6  50 


6-inch  (the  pair), 
9-inch, 


$8  00 
15  00 


13-inch  Globes,  with  High  Mahogany  Stands  and  Compasses  (the  pair),  $40  00 
18-inch  "  "  "  "  "  $68  to  $80 

18-inch  "  "  Rosewood  "  "  "  $100  00 

Globes  in  neat  Mahogany  Cases,  1-inch,  Terrestrial,  75c.;  l|  inch,  $1  00; 
2-inch  (the  pair),  $3  00. 

Mattison's  Astronomical  Maps,  size  38  by  45  inches,  on  Cloth  and  Rollers,  at  $16  50 
the  set.  Astronomical  Diagrams  for  the  Magic  Lantern,  of  every  variety  and  size. 


PIKE'S  SCHOOL  APPARATUS. 


405 


SET  OF  APPARATUS  FOR 

MOTION,  MECHANICS,  AND  MATHEMATICS.     Price,  $72  00. 


1.  Inertia  Apparatus,        -        -        -        f  1  50    12.  Planetarium, 

2.  Collision  Balls  and  Frame,      -        -      3  00    13.  Centrifugal  Machine,    - 

3.  Apparntus  for  Impenetrability,    -         1  00    14.  Surveyors'  Ccmpasges,  5  in.  diam. 

4.  Adhesion  Plates,       -        -        -        -      1  50    15.          „  Chain,  2  poles,  - 

5.  Capillary  Tubes,  -        -        .         1  00     16.  Quadrant,          .... 

6  to  10.  Set  of  Mechanical  Powers,  16  00    17.  Hour  Glass, 

11.  Rocking  Horse,     ....         0  75 

672  25 

The  Mechanical  Powers,  figures  6,  7,  8,  9,  and  10,  consisting1  of  levers  and  pul- 
leys, arranged  on  a  mahogany  frame  24  inches  long  and  26  inches  high,  with  four 
systems  of  pulleys  attached.  On  each  side  of  the  frame,  behind  the  pulleys,  are 
graduated  scales,  with  cords  passing  across  the  length  of  the  frame  and  dividing 
the  space  into  24  equal  parts,  to  show  the  number  of  inches,  rise  and  fall,  of  the 
weights,  and  that  it  is  inversely  as  the  power  gained.  Brass  levers  on  the  top  of 
the  first,  second  and  third  orders;  bent  lever  and  pulley  for  passing  over  the  cord; 
and  on  one  end  is  fixed  the  wheel  and  axle  with  four  different  diameters.  The  ac- 
companiments are,  a  large  and  well-made  inclined  plane,  with  graduated  arch  and 
carriage,  wedge  jointed  in  two  parts,  screw  and  lever,  and  screw  as  an  inclined 
plane,  and  a  set  of  10  brass  weights,  from  one-quarter  of  an  ounce  to  eight  ounces. 
Price  $16  00.  Also,  Larger  Sets,  at  $35  and  $60.  Atwood  Machines,  at  $25, 
$40,  $100  and  $120.  Whirling  Tables  and  Apparatus,  $30  and  $75. 
SET  OF  APPARATUS  FOR  OPTICS.  Price  $163  00. 

1.  Set  of  Six  Lenses,  .        .        -      $1  50 

2.  Pri^rn, 0  75 


2  25 
0  38 
4  00 
4  25 

13  00 


12.  Simple  Microscope, 

13.  Compound    " 

14.  Solar  " 

15.  Magic  Lantern, 

16.  ]  dozen  Sliders, 

17.  Set  Astronomical  Sliders, 


-  $1  00 

3  50 

-  2fl  00 
*3  to  15  00 

-    f2  to  15  00 
$7  50  to  -3D  00 


18.  Astronomical  Telescope,  with  3-inch 

Achromatic    Object    Glass,    and 
about  5  feet  long  on  Stand, 

19.  Polariscope,        .... 

20.  Crystals  for  Polariscope. 


4«  00 
4  50 
1  00 


3.  Color-blender,        -        .        -        -        1  00 

4.  Pair  ot  5-inch  Mirrors,  Concave  and 

Convex,      

5.  Multiplying  Glass,     • 

6.  Camera  Obscura,   .... 

7.  Cosmorama  and  12  Views, 

8.  Model  of  Eye, 

9.  Muscles  of  Eye, 

10.  Long  and  Short  Sight  Explained, 

11.  Image  on  Retina, 

*163  13 

A  good  Compound  Microscope  may  be  had  for  $3  50;  larger,  $5  50,  $9  50, 
$10,  and  $20.  Superior  Magic  Lanterns,  $15  ;  Sliders,  4  inches  wide,  on  Astron- 
omy, $20  the  set;  Natural  History,  $20;  Botany,  $20;  Scripture  History, 
$27  50 ;  Humorous  and  Comic  Sliders,  <J}1  25  each.  Also,  Views  and  other  sub- 
jects in  great  variety.  A  pair  of  Lanterns,  with  Dissolving  Apparatus,  ^50.  As- 
tronomiral  Telescopes,  with  mahogany  tube,  on  Stands,  according  to  size,  $30  to 
$48.  Others  of  various  kinds  and  styles,  with  brass  tubes,  varying  from  $25  to 
$400.  The  Eye  Models  in  four  parts.  A  Dissected  Eye,  four  inches  diameter, 


406 


SCHOOL   ARCHITECTURE. 


showing  the  cornea,  iris,  ciliary  process,  choroid  tunic,  crystalline  lens,  vitreous 
humor,  retina,  bla«"k  pigment,  optic  nerve,  &c.,  showing  the  eye  in  its  socket  with 
the  muscles ;  tho  Bye  with  the  rays  of  light  passing  from  an  object  and  forming  the 
image  on  the  retina ;  the  object  and  image  movable,  showing  the  cause  of  long 
sight,  short  sight,  and  perfect  sight.  A  4-inch  ball,  with  convex  lens  on  one  end, 
and  a  ground  glass  fixed  to  a  sliding  brass  tube  on  the  other  end,  and  on  which  may 
be  seen  the  inverted  image,  representing  the  eye  as  a  camera  obscura,  and  by  the 
aid  of  the  set  of  lenses,  the  use  of  spectacles  to  the  eye  explained. 

SET  OF  PNEUMATIC  APPARATUS.     (Price  $42  00.) 


Z.PIKKJ* 

204-  BROADWAY. 
y        N.Y. 


Consisting  of  a  Double-barrel  Air  Pump,  worked  by  racks  and  cog  wheel,  by 
double  lever  handles,  mounted  on  a  polished  mahogany  frame.     Price  $23. 

2.  Swelled  Air-Pump  Receiver,  -        -      $1  75  I    7.  Flask  v/ith  stop-cock,  to  weish  air,,    $2  00 

3.  Hand  and  Bladder  Glass,  .  0  75  |    8.  FreezingApparatus  and  LowReceiver,  1  50 


0  75 
4  00 
2  25 


ppai 
Exr 


9.  Bolt  Head  Experiment,     - 

10.  Air  Shower  Experiment, 

11.  Magdeburg  Hemispheres, 


1  25 
0  75 
4  00 


4.  Pressure  Glass, 

5.  Fountain  in  Vacuo, 

6.  Bell  „        and  Receiver,  • 

With  the  above  represented  Air  Pump,  and  ten  different  appendages,  many  in- 
teresting experiments  may  be  performed,  and  all  the  most  important  principles 
connected  therewith,  illustrated  in  a  satisfactory  manner.  All  but  the  last  two  are 
drawn  in  the  cut.  On  the  left  of  the  cut  is  represented  a  brass  Condensing  Pump, 
the  barrel  ten  inches  long,  and  one  and  a  half  diameter,  and  a  strong  glass  Air 
Chamber,  with  cap,  stop-cock,  and  pipes,  attached  ;  also,  a  Revolving  Jet,  Straight 
Jet  and  Rose  Jet.  The  whole  being  a  complete  apparatus  for  the  condensation  of 
air  and  experiments  therewith.  The  jets  may  be  used  by  the  passage  of  either  air 
or  water  through  them.  Price  $12.  An  apparatus  with  cylindrical  copper  air 
chamber,  at  the  same  price.  Also,  a  Brass  Tube  for  illustrating  the  principle  of 
the  Air  Gun,  price  $1  50.  The  Air  Pump  Apparatus,  or  any  portion  of  it,  may 
be  used  with  a  Single  Barrel  Air  Pump,  at  $7,  $9,  or  $12,  according  to  size,  or 
with  Pike's  Improved  Single  Barrel  Air  Pump,  price  $20,  being  the  largest,  most 
powerful  and  durable  pump  made  for  the  price.  Also,  Pike's  elegant  Lever  Air 
Pumps,  4  feet  high,  price  $63,  or  with^gauge,  $70.  Larger  Double-barrel  and 
Lever  Air  Pumps,  and  more  extended  apparatus  constantly  on  hand. 


SET  OF  APPARATUS  FOR  HYDROSTATICS. 

L  Hydrometer, $0  50 

2.  Tube  for  relative  wfight  of  fluids,  1  50 

3.  Level  and  Plumb  Level.  -        -        -  1  25 

4.  Syphon  with  D  rawing  Tube,        .  0  75 

5.  Wirtemberg  Syphon,       -        .        .  0  75 

6.  Tantalus  Cup,        ....  3  00 

7.  Hydrostatic  Equilibrium,         -        .  2  50 

8.  Lifting  Pump,        ....  3  50 
».  Forcing  Pump,          -        -        -        •  5  00 


Price  $45. 
Frame  for  Pumps, 

10.  Hydrostatic  Bellows,      - 

11.  Spouting  Fluids,          ... 

12.  Barker's  Mill,         .... 

13.  Archimedes  Screw,    - 

14.  Upward  and  Downward  Pressure 

of  Fluids,        -       -       .       . 


$1  50 
5  00 
5  00 
5  00 
9  00 

2  00 

«45  25 


PIKE'S  SCHOOL  APPARATUS. 
SET  OF  ELECTRICAL  APPARATUS.    Price  $31  50. 

0. 


407 


Consisting  of  a  well-made,  7-inch  Cylinder  Electrical  Machine,  with  mahogany 
frame,  neat,  turned  pillars,  Insulated  Prime  Conductor,  Brass  Ball  and  Wire,  Pair 
of  Chains,  and  Box  of  Amalgam.  Price  $14  00. 


9.  Cylinder  with  Dancing  Pith  Balls,  f  1  50 

10.  Long  Hair  Man,      -        -        -        -  0  75 

11.  Electrical  Chase— Four  Revolving 

Horsemen  on  Insulated  Stand,  2  50 

12.  Insulating  Stool,          ...  3  00 

13.  Electrical  Swan,     -       -       -       -  0  25 


2.  Leyden  Jar  (quart  size),           -  .-      $1  25 

3.  Jointed  Discharger,       -  1  25 
1  Quadrant  Electrometer,  -       -  -       1  25 

5.  Image  Plates  and  Pith  Images,  -            1  25 

6.  Chime  of  three  Bells,  2  00 

7.  Revolving  Flyer,  ....  0  50 

8.  Luminous  Spiral  Tube,            -  -        2  00 

The  above  described  Set  is  one  much  approved,  and  is  warranted  superior  to  any 
other  sets  that  have  yet  been  before  the  public,  for  its  price;  and  the  working  of  the 
machines  is  unsurpassed,  if  equalled,  by  any  of  their  size.  Any  portion,  or  all  of 
this  Electrical  Apparatus,  may  be  used  with  a  4^-inch  cylinder  machine,  costing  but 
$8,  or  5-inch,  $10;  6-inch,  $12;  8-inch,  $16;  9-inch,  $18;  10-inch,  $20.  A 
16-inch  Plate  Electrical  Machine,  handsomely  finished,  the  Prime  Conductor  and 
Rubber  Conductor  of  brass,  supported  on  stout,  swelled  glass  pillars,  having  brass 
sockets  and  mahogany  frame,  and  mounted  on  four  turned  feet.  Price  $25  00,  or, 
with  the  Apparatus,  $42  00. 

A  20-inch  plate  Electrical  Machine,  mounted  as  the  preceding  one,  but  much 
larger  in  all  its  parts,  $38,  or  with  above  apparatus,  $55. 

Larger  Machines  and  more  extended  Apparatus,  in  great  variety  of  form  and 
price. 

(  4  quart  Leyden  Jars,  in  a  Mahogany  Case,         -       $6  50 


Electrical  Battery  of  <J  4  2-quart     "         "                      "             «•       - 

8  00 

(  4  gallon      " 

10  00 

SET  OF  APPARATUS  FOR  MAGNETISM  AND  GALVANISM. 

Price  $52  or  $70. 

1.  Bar  Magnet             -        -        -        -      $0  75 
2.  Horse-Shoe  Magnet,    -                            1  00 

12.  Electro-Magnet,      .... 
13.  Maeric  Circle,       .... 

$1  75 
1  75 

3.  Star  and  Circular  Plate,        -        -        0  50 

14.  Rod  in  Air  and  Helix,     - 

250 

4.  Rolling  Armature,       ...           1  00 
5.  Y.  Armature,           -        -        -        -        0  50 

15.  Magnetizing  Helix  on  Stand, 
16.  Galvanometer,         -        - 

2  50 
3  00 

6.  Two  Polished  Iron  Balls,            -            0  50 

17.  Tel-graph  Model, 

7  50 

7   Iron  Rods  and  Half  Links,     -        -        0  25 
8    Magnetic  Swan  and  Fishes,         -            0  50 

18.  Beam  Engine  $10,  or  Axial  Eugine, 
1'J.  Wheel     "            .        -        -        - 

1000 
6  50 

9.  Mngnetic  Noedle  and  Stand,           .        0  75 
10   Galvanic  Battery,         ...            2  50 

20.  Powder  Cup,          .... 

0  50 

11.  Magneto  Electric  Machine,    -        -        9  00  | 

§62  25 

408 


SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 


Grove's  Battery,  12  series  of  Zinc  and  Platina  in  Glass  Cups,  arranged  in  a  neat 
Black  Walnut  Case  with  Cover,  with  a  set  of  Conducting-  Wires,  tipped  with  fine 
copper,  steel  and  iron  wire,  watch-spring,  &c.,  which  burn  with  bright  and  varied 
colors,  brilliant  scintillations,  &c. ;  a  pair  of  Carbon  Points,  for  producing  the  Gal- 
vanic Light,  and  a  Glass  Globe,  with  wires  tipped  with  platina,  for  collecting  the 
gases  in  the  decomposition  of  water.  Price  of  the  Battery,  according  to  size,  $15, 
$18,  and  $20. 

SET  OF  APPARATUS  FOR  CHEMISTRY.    Price  $47  00. 


1.  Retort  Stand,         -       .       -       .      $1  50 

2.  Spirit  Lamp        ....  0  75 

3.  Glass  Flask  with  Ring  Neck,          .  0  25 

4.  Three  Glass  Retorts,           -  1  06 

5.  Receiver  with  Stopper,          -        -  0  38 

6.  Matrass  with  long  neck,     -  0  37 

7.  Pneumatic  Cistern,        -        -        -  2  00 

8.  Two  Bell  Glasses,  half  gal.  and  quart,  1  25 

9.  Gas  Bottle, 0  63 

10.  Bell  Gloss,  Stoppered,        -  1  00 

11.  Deflagrating  Jar  "       and  Spoon,  1  00 

12.  Bdl  Glasa  with  Cap  and  Stop-Cock,  2  00 
Bubble  Pipe,  Jet,  and  Gas  Bag,      -  1  00 

13.  Hydrogen  Gas  Pistol,          -  0  38 

14.  "            "    Balloon,           -        .  1  25 
35.  Iodine  in  Glass  Flask,         •  0  38 

16.  Scales  and  Weights,        -        -        .  1  25 

17.  Dropping  Tube,           ...  Q  38 

18.  Gins*  Funnel,          -        -        .        .  0  18 

19.  Three  Precipitating  Glasses,       .  0  45 

20.  Three  Test  Tubes,          -        .        .  0  15 
2L  Graduated  Measure  Glass,          -  0  63 
2-<i.  Beaker  Glass,          •        -        .        -  0  25 
23.  Crucibles— nest,          ...  o  10 


24.  Mortar  and  Pestle,         -        -        -  $0  75 

25.  Evaporating  Dish,       ...  0  38 

26.  Adapter, 0  37 

27.  Spatula, 0  38 

28.  Blow  Pipe, 0  37 

29.  Air  Thermometer,      ...  0  19 

30.  Eolopile, 0  38 

31.  Boiling  Glass,       ....  0  50 

32.  Steam  Apparatus,            -        -        -  1  50 

33.  Four  Candle  Bombs,           .        •  012 

34.  Fire  Syringe,           -        -        -        .  1  00 

35.  Chryophorous,            ...  l  75 

36.  Flameless  Lamp,  1  -25 

37.  Conductometer,           ...  1  75 

38.  Pyrometer. 3  50 

39.  Chemical  Thermometer,            -  1  00 

40.  Downward   Conducting  Power  of 

Heat  in  Fluids,        ...  ]  75 

41.  Pair  13  inch  Reflectors  and  Stands,  5  50 

42.  Iron  Ball  and  Stand,            -  1  00 

43.  Differential  Thermometer,     -        -  1  50 

44.  Improved  Iron  Retort  for  Oxygen,  3  50 

$47  03 


A  great  variety  of  other  Chemical  Apparatus  on  hand.  A  Compound  Blow  Pipe 
and  Pnettmatic  Cistern  Combined,  $8  50 ;  larger,  $12.  Hydrogen  Generator,  $4. 
Gas  Bags  to  hold  three  or  four  gallons,  with  Stop-cock,  $3  25  ;  larger  size,  $7  to 
$10.  Sheet  Iron  Furnaces,  $8.  Davy's  Safety  Lamp,  in  Brass,  $3.  Apparatus 
for  Specific  Heat,  $4  ;  for  Unequal  Expansion  of  Fluids,  $4  ;  for  Ball  and  Ring 
Experiment,  $2  25;  for  Condensation  by  Mixture,  $1  25.  Marcet's  Steam  Boiler, 
with  Barometer  and  Thermometer,  $15.  Copper  Still,  Worm  and  Tub,  $6  to  $8. 
Ure's  Eudiometer,  $2  50,  if  graduated,  $4;  Fhtsk  Holder,  $1  50;  Wolf 's  Ap- 
paratus, 4  bottles  and  tubes,  arranged  in  a  tray,  $6  to  $7  50;  Glass  Alembics,  $1 
to  $2.  Twelve  6-inch  Test-Tubes,  in  mahogany  polished  frame,  $1  50.  Marsh'* 
Arsenic  Apparatus,  $2  50.  Bulb  Tubes,  37c. ;  two  Bulb  Tubes,  50c.  Drying 
Tubes,  37  to  75c. 

Chemical  Materials  on  hand  and  furnished  to  order  at  regular  nrices. 


PIKE'S  SCHOOL  APPARATUS.  409 

SET  OF  PHILOSOPHICAL  APPARATUS.     Price  $500. 

1.  Set,  including  Motion,  Mechanics,  and  Surveying  Instruments,         -       $72  00 

2.  "  "  Optics,  Telescope,  Solar  Microscope,  Magic  Lantern,  &c.,  163  00 

3.  "  "  Air  Pump  and  Apparatus,           -         -         -         -         -  42  00 

4.  "  "  Condensing  Pump, 13  50 

5.  "  '»  Hydrostatics  and  Hydraulics,     -          -          -          -         -  45  00 

6.  "  "  Electrical  Machine  and  Apparatus,         ...  31   50 

7.  "  "  Magnetism  and  Galvanism,         -          -          -         -          -  52  00 

8.  "  "  Grove's  Battery  and  Apparatus,     -         -         -         -  18  00 

9.  "  "  Chemical  Apparatus, 47  00 

10.  A  Barometer    and    Thermometer,    $10;     Hygrometer,    $3  50;    Rain 

Gauge,  $2  50, 16  00 

$500  00 
APPROVED  SET  OF  PHILOSOPHICAL  APPARATUS.     Price  $250. 

Being  the  same  as  the  above  $500  Set,  with  the  omission   of  some  of  the  more 
cosr.lv  articles. 

1.  Set,  without  Quadrant,  Surveyor's  Compass  and  Chain,      -  $37  75 

2.  "  *'       Telescope,  Solar  Microscope,  and  Magic  Lantern,       -  37  00 

3.  "  Complete, 42  00 

4.  "  "  13  50 

5.  "  without  Lifting  and  Forcing  Puinps,  Archimedes  Screw,  Barker's 

Mill,  Spouting  and  Pressure  of  Fluids,     -----  14  00 

6.  Set,  Complete, 31  50 

7.  "     without  Telegraph,  3  Magnetic  Engines,  and  Galvanometer,    -  26  00 

8.  "     Complete,  -  18  00 

9.  "    without  the  seven  last  instruments  in  the  list,  ...  30  00 


$250  00 

These  sets  may  be  further  reduced,  added  to,  or  alterations  made,  to  suit  the 
purposes  of  the  institution  using  the  same,  and  it  will  be  found,  on  examination, 
that  there  has  been  no  sets  of  as  good  quality,  or  embracing  so  many  important  in- 
struments, offered  at  as  low  a  price. 

PARTICULARS  OF  A  SET  OF  PHILOSOPHICAL  APPARATUS,  FOR  $50. 

A  f:ve-inch  terrestrial  globe,  $1  50 ;  a  set  of  twelve  geometrical  solids,  $1  25; 
a  numeral  frame,  88c.  ----._---  $3  63. 

Optics. — Prism,  38c. ;  kaleidoscope,  12c. ;  multiplying  glass,  38c. ;  magic  lan- 
tern and  set  of  twelve  sliders,  $1  25;  concave  and  convex  mirrors,  four-inch 
diameter,  $1  25  ;  a  microscope,  $1  ;  concave  and  convex  lenses,  50c.  $4  88. 

Pneumatics. — Single  barrel  air  pump  and  receiver,  $7 ;  hand  and  bladder  glass, 
75c. ;  air  shower,  75c. ;  pressure  glass,  75c. ;  Magdeburgh  hemispheres,  $4 ; 
syphon,  38c. $13  62. 

Electricity. — Five-inch  cylinder  electrical  machine,  $8;  Leyden  jar,  75c.  ;  dis- 
charger, 25c. ;  electrical  bells,  $1  25  ;  pair  of  image  plates  and  pith  images,  $1  25; 
longhair  man,  75c.  :  swan,  50c. ;  revolving  flyers,  50c.  -  -  $13  25. 

Galvanism  and  Magnetism. — Galvanic  battery,  $2  50;  electro-magnet,  $1  ; 
magic  circle,  $1 ;  horse-shoe  magnet,  50c. ;  iron  rods  and  filings,  25c. ;  magnetic 
needle,  38c. ;  magnetic  fish,  25c.  -  -  -  -  -  -  $5  88. 

Chemistry. — Two  glass  retorts,  56c. ;  one  matrass,  25c. ;  two  flasks,  12c.  ;  retort 
stand,  $1  25;  spirit  lamp,  75c.;  one  bell  glass  receiver,  50c.;  one  stoppered  glass  jar, 
38r..;  one.  bell  glass  receiver  with  cap  and  stop-cock,  $1  75  ;  pipe,  jrt,  and  gas-bag, 
88c.;  blow-pipe,  38:'.;  nest  of  crucibles,  6c.  ;  air  thermometer,  12c. ;  funnel,  15r.  ; 
two  test  tubes,  lOc. ;  scales  and  weights,  §1  25;  hydrometer,  50c.  -  $9  00. 


SCHOOL    APPARATUS. 


AIDS   TO  INSTRUCTION, 


TO   BE   FOUND   AT 


IDE  &  BUTTON'S,  106  WASHINGTON  ST.,  BOSTON. 


Swain's  Planetarium,  $15.00 

Solar  Telluric  Globe,  7.00 

Cornell's  Ter.  Globe,  3.50 

Loring's  Globes,  $2.50  to  50.00 

Copley's  16  in.  Globes,  20.00  pair 
Holbrook's  School  Apparatus,  $45.00  set 

Numerical  Frames,  1.00 

Allen's  Game  of  Letters,  50c.  to  10.00 

Black-board  Brushes,  50  cts. 

Chalk  Crayon?,  75  cts.  gro. 

Geometrical  Solids,  1.25  set 

Punctuation  Tables,  25  cts. 


Powle's  Outline  Maps,  $4.00 
do.      Map  of  Massachusetts,          5.00 

Pelton's  Outline  Maps,  25.00 

Mitchell's  do.         do.  8.00 

Bliss's        do.         do.  7.00 

Astronomical  Diagrams,  15.00 

Fowle's  Physiol.  Diagrams,  5.00 

Cutter's       do.             do.  7.00 

Ide's  Teacher's  Register,  25  cts. 

do.         do.        Tokens,  25  per  100 
School  Rewards,  all  prices, 
Ide's  Skeleton  Maps, 


36c.  doz. 


A  Set  for  every  Primary  School. 


Fowle's  Maps, 
Loring's  Semi  Frame  Globe, 
Numerical  Frame, 
Black-board  Brush, 
Numeral  Table,  Sheet, 
Punctuation  Table, " 
Articulation  Table, " 
Education  Letter  Table,  Board, 


$4.00 

2.50 

1.00 

50 

25 

25 

50 

1.50 


10.50 

Persons  enclosing  us  Ten  Dollars,  free 
of  expense,  will  recive  the  above  set  sent 
as  they  may  direct. 


Large  Grammar  School  Set. 

Pelton's  splendid  Maps  &  Key,     $25.00 
Fowle's  large  Map  Massachusetts, 


(for  use  in  Mass.,) 
Loring's  12  in.  Globes,  (pair,) 
Swain's  Planetarium, 
Fowle's  Physiol.  Diagrams, 
6  Black-board  Brushes, 
1  gross  Chalk  Crayons, 
1  set  Geometrical  Solids, 
1  set  Cube  Root  Blocks, 
Tonman's  Chart  of  Chemistry, 


5.00 
25.00 
15.00 
5.00 
2.25 
75 
1.25 
75 
5.00 
$85.00 

Persons  enclosing  us  Eighty  Dollars 
will  receive  the  above  set  sent  as  they 
may  direct. 

We  have  also  on  hand  the  largest  assortment  of  Maps  (both  ancient  and  mod- 
ern), Atlases  and  Guide  Books,  to  be  found  in  the  city,  and  a  great  variety  of 
School  Apparatus.  Catalogues  to  be  had  gratuitous,  by  application  by  mail,  post 
paid.  IDE  &  DUTTON. 


GOOD  YEAR'S  VULCANIZED  INDIA  RUBBER.  411 


GOODYEAK'S  METALLIC  GUM-ELASTIC,  OR  VULCANIZED  INDIA  RUBBER. 

The  fabric  known  as  " Goodyear 's  Gum-elastic,  or  Vulcanized  India  -rubber" 
invented  and  manufactured  by  Charles  Goodyear,  of  New  Haven,  Conn.,  is 
capable  of  many  highly  useful  applications  in  the  school-room,  and  for  educa- 
tional purposes  generally.  By  the  changes  wrought  by  Mr.  Goodyear  in  the 
construction  of  his  fabrics,  all  of  the  remarkable  properties  of  the  gum  in  its 
native  state  are  preserved  and  improved,  while  its  defects  and  objectional 
features  are  obviated.  There  seems  to  be  no  limit  to  the  many  useful  purposes 
to  which  it  may  be  applied,  in  every  department  of  the  useful  arts,  and  of  prac- 
tical life,  and  the  public  is  not  yet  apprised  of  its  manifold  adaptations  to  hu- 
mane purposes,  and  to  the  protection  of  life  and  property.  We  shall  here  notice 
only  a  few  of  its  many  useful  applications  in  the  school-room,  and  for  school 
purposes  generally. 

Book-binding  or  Covers. 

Several  styles  of  Goodyear's  fabrics  are  admirably  adapted  to  the  binding,  or 
covers  of  school-books.  A  cover  of  this  material  does  not  crack,  or  warp,  is 
not  injured  by  water  or  oil,  is  not  easily  soiled,  and  if  soiled,  can  be  readily 
cleaned.  A  school-book  bound  in  this  way,  we  have  every  reason  to  suppose, 
will  outlast,  in  the  ordinary  "wear  and  tear"  of  a  child's  use,  (except  that  of 
the  knife,  which  ought  never  to  be  allowed  in  a  child's  hand  in  the  school- 
room,) a  dozen  bound  in  the  best  style  with  any  kind  of  leather. 

School  Books. 

Its  uses  are  not  confined  to  covers,  but  school  books  can  be  printed  on  this 
fabric,  which  can  be  manufactured  of  suitable  thinness  for  this  purpose,  and 
at  the  same  time  have  a  strength  of  texture,  which  will  not  tear,  but  outlast  the 
best  linen  paper,  and  at  the  same  time  be  readily  cleaned  when  soiled. 

When  school  books  are  printed  on  this  fabric,  and  bound  in  covers  of  the 
same,  one  of  the  greatest  items  of  educational  expense  will  be  reduced. 

Maps  and  Charts. 

We  have  seen  beautiful  specimens  of  maps  printed  on  various  specimens  of 
a  new  fabric,  recently  invented,  and  called  vegetable  kat/ier,  gum-elastic  vellum, 
and  metallic  tissue,  which  will  admit  of  the  roughest  use,  and  are  capable  of 
being  handled  for  years  without  any  injury,  and  can  be  rolled  or  folded  up 
when  not  in  use.  We  see  no  difficulty  in  printing  outline  maps,  charts,  and 
diagrams  of  all  kinds  on  this  fabric,  which  can  be  rolled  up  when  not  needed,, 
and  which  can  be  washed  and  wiped  clean  with  sponge,  if  soiled  from  use,  or 
from  the  dust  and  smoke  of  the  school-room.  Both  sides  of  the  fabric  can  be 
used  for  the  purposes  of  printing.  The  outline  maps,  if  made  of  suitable 
fabric,  can  be  filled  up  by  the  scholar,  and  the  pencil  marks  erased  by  the 
sponge.  Maps  of  this  material  can  be  so  made  as  to  exhibit  the  elevations  and 
depressions  on  the  earth's  surface. 

Globes. 

We  have  seen  beautiful  specimens  of  globes,  celestial  and  terrestrial,  and 
of  a  great  variety  of  sizes,  from  three  inches  to  three  feet,  made  of  the  fabric 
above  described,  such  as  vegetable  leather,  or  gum-elastic  vellum.  When  em- 
bossed, they  show  the  elevations  and  depressions,  the  mountains  and  valleys, 
and  water-courses  of  the  earth's  surface.  When  inflated  with  gas  lighter  than 
atmospheric  air,  they  float  about  the  room.  If  soiled,  they  can  be  easily  cleaned 
with  the  sponge,  anil  will  bear  the  roughest  usage.  If  the  great  outlines  of  the 
globe  only  are  printed,  the  pupil  can  be  exercised  in  filling  up  the  blank  with  a 
lead  pencil.  When  articles  made  of  this  fabric  come  into  demand,  our  schools 
can  be  furnished  with  globes  almost  at  the  price  of  children's  toys,  and  thus 
the  great  objection  of  expense  will  no  longer  prevent  the  introduction  of  this 


412  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

piece  of  apparatus,  and  of  visible  illustration,  into  every  school  of  every  grade. 
When  not  inflated,  the  globe  of  three  feet  can  be  packed  away  in  a  space 
of  about  as  many  inches. 

Floor  Cloth,  or  Carpet. 

This  fabric  is  admirably  adapted  for  carpeting  the  aisles  of  a  school-room, 
both  to  prevent  reverberation,  and  to  secure  cleanliness.  It  can  be  easily 
cleaned,  and  will  wear  as  long  as  the  floor  itself. 


Blackboard  and  Desk  Covering. 

By  using  different  styles  of  this  fabric,  a  suitable  surface  of  any  desirable 
size  can  be  obtained  for  the  lead  or  slate  pencil,  which  can  be  attached  per- 
manently to  a  wall,  or  be  made  in  a  portable  form. 

Ii  can  be  attached  to  the  top  of  the  desk,  and  thereby  prevent  all  reverberation. 
When  thus  applied,  it  will  not  gather  dust,  or  wear  out,  like  cloth,  but  can  be 
kept  clean  with  a  sponge,  and  will  wear  as  long  as  the  wood  itself.  The  fabric 
used  for  covering  a  desk,  can  be  of  the  same  style  of  fabric  as  that  used  for  a 
blackboard  or  slate,  and  thus  answer  all  the  purposes  of  either  of  these  articles 
of  apparatus. 

Sponge. 

An  article  is  made  of  the  gum,  leavened  and  raised  like  bread,  and  called  a 
sponge,  from  its  close  resemblance,  in  texture  and  uses,  to  the  natural  sponge. 
It  is  the  best  article  which  we  have  seen  for  erasing  marks  made  by  a  lead  or 
slate  pencil,  or  chalk,  on  paper,  slate,  or  blackboard,  or  prepared  surface  of 
any  kind  in  the  nature  of  the  blackboard  or  slate.  Besides  answering  all  the 
purposes  of  the  sponge  in  such  applications,  it  will  remove  the  oiliness  which 
is  frequently  communicated  to  the  slate  by  the  hand,  &c.  It  is  also  inval- 
uable as  a  mop,  or  scrub,  or  shoe  mat,  at  the  door  of  the  school-house,  as  it  is 
not  injured  by  exposure,  or  the  roughest  and  most  constant  usage. 


Pen  and  Pencil  Wiper. 

The  article  used  for  making  the  sponge  can  also  be  made  into  a  pen-wiper, 
and  can  be  attached  to  the  inkstand,  (which  can  also  be  manufactured  of  the 
same  material.)  It  can  also  be  attached  to  the  end  of  the  lead  pencil,  or  to  the 
port-crayon,  or  handle  for  the  more  convenient  use  of  the  crayon,  chalk,  or  slate 
pencil.  It  will  work  much  closer  than  the  native  gum,  and  is  admirably 
adapted  to  drawing  purposes. 


Calisthenic  Exercises 

Every  school,  and  especially  every  school  for  girls  and  young  ladies,  should 
be  supplied  with  swings,  and  other  apparatus  for  developing,  expanding,  and 
strengthening  the  muscles  of  the  chest,  arms,  &c.,  and  for  these  purposes  several 
styles  of  this  fabric  are  admirably  adapted. 


Drawing  and  Writing  Tablets. 

One  style  of  the  improved  metallic  fabric  is  admirably  adapted  as  a  substi- 
tute for  paper  or  slate,  for  introductory  exercises  in  writing  and  drawing,  as 
each  impression  of  the  pencil  can  be  removed  by  the  sponge,  and  a  fresh,  clean 
surface  as  constantly  secured.  The  same  material  can  be  used  for  books  for 
memoranda,  records  of  attendance,  returns  of  school  committees,  foe. 

The  excellence  of  this  fabric  for  all  school  purposes,  as  compared  with  paper, 
and  other  materials  used  for  similar  purposes,  consists  in  its  durability  and 
economy. 


LIBRARY. 


EVERY  school  should  be  famished  with  a  Library  which  should  include, 

1.  Books  on  schools  and  school-systems,  for  the  use  of  school  officers 
and  parents ;  and  on  the  theory  and  practice  of  teaching,  for  the  pro- 
fessional instruction  of  teachers. 

2.  Books  of  reference,  for  the  use  principally  of  teachers. 

3.  Books  for  circulation  among  the  pupils. 

4.  Books  for  circulation  among  the  parents,  and  inhabitants  of  the  Dis- 
trict, or  neighborhood. 

In  the  arrangement,  and  furniture  of  a  school-house,  provision  should 
be  made  for  the  Library. 

The  following  catalogue  may  assist  those  who  are  charged  with  the 
purchase  of  books : 

BOOKS  ON  EDUCATION. 

THE  SCHOOL  AND  SCHOOL-MASTER,  by  Alonzo  Potter,  (Bishop  of 
Pennsylvania,)  and  George  B.  Emerson.  New  York:  Harper  and 
Brothers.  Boston :  Fowle  and  Capen.  Price  $1.00.  551  pages. 

This  volume  was  prepared  at  the  request  of  the  late  James  Wads- 
worth,  of  Geneseo,  New  York,  with  special  reference  to  the  condition  and 
wants  of  common  schools  in  that  State.  Its  general  principles  and  most 
of  its  details  are  applicable  to  similar  schools  in  other  parts  of  the  country, 
and.  indeed,  to  all  seminaries  employed  in  giving  elementary  instruction. 
Mr.  Wadsworth  directed  a  copy  of  it  to  be  placed  in  each  of  the  school 
libraries  of  New  York,  at  his  expense,  and  his  noble  example  was  fol- 
lowed in  respect  to  the  schools  of  Massachusetts,  by  the  Hon.  Martin 
Brimmer,  of  Boston. 

CONTENTS.  PART  I.  Introduction.  CHAPTER  I.  EDUCATION  OF  THE  PEOPLE.  Sec.  L 
What  is  Education.  Sec.  II.  Prevailing  Errors  in  regard  to  the  Nature  and  End  of  Education, 
Sec.  III.  The  same  Subject  continued  Sec.  IV.  Same  Subject  continued.  Sec.  V.  What  is 
the  Education  most  needed  by  the  American  People.  Sec.  VI.  The  Importance  of  Education, 
1.  To  the  Individual.  Sec.  VII.  The  Importance  of  Education,  2.  To  Society. 

CHAPTER  II.  COMMON  SCHOOLS.  Sec.  I.  Relation  of  Common  Schools  to  other  Means  of 
Education.  Sec.  II.  Present  State  of  Common  Schools.— 1.  School-houses.  2.  Manners.  3. 
Morals.  Sec.  III.  Same  Subject  continued. — 4.  Intellectual  Instruction.  5.  Irregular  Attend- 
ance. Sec.  IV.  How  can  Common  Schools  be  improred  ? — 1.  Discussion.  2.  Female  Teachers. 
3.  Union  or  High  Schools.  4.  Consolidation  of  Districts.  Sec.  V.  The  Improvement  of  Com* 
mon  Schools  continued.  Organization  in  Cities. — 1.  District  System.  2.  Monitorial.  3. 
Facher  System.  4.  American  system.  5.  Diversity  of  Class-books.  Sec.  VI.  Same  Subject, 
continued.— Education  of  Teachers. 

CONTENTS.  PART  II.  Introduction.  BOOK  I.  QUALITIES.  Chap.  I.  Mental  and 
Moral,  important  in  a  Teacher.  Chap.  II.  Health.  Exercise.  Diet.  Sleep.  Recreation. 

BOOK  II.  STUDIES.  Chap.  I.  Laws  of  the  Creation.  Chap.  II.  Narural  Laws.  Chap.  IIL 
Independence  of  the  Natural  Laws.  Chap.  IV.  Higher  Studies.  Chap.  V.  Advantages  of  a 
Teacher's  Life. 

BOOK  III.  DUTIES.  Chap.  I,  To  Himself.  Self-Culture.  Chap.  II.  To  his  Pupils,  to  give 
them  means  of  Knowledge.  Chap.  III.  To  his  Pupils,  to  form  their  Moral  Character.  Chap, 
IV.  To  his  Pupils.  Cultivation  of  their  Powers.  Chap.  V.  Communication  of  Knowledge. 
Chap.  VI.  To  his  Fellow-Teachers.  Chap.  VII.  To  Parents  and  the  Community. 

BOOK  IV.  THE  SCHOOL.  Chap.  I.  Organization.  Chap.  II.  Instruction.  General  Princi- 
ples. Chap.  III.  Teaching:  1.  Reading.  2.  Spelling.  3.  Grammar.  4.  Writing.  5.  Drtw- 


414  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

ing.    6.  Arithmetic.    7.  Accounts.    8.  Geography.    9.  History.     10.  Physiology.     11.  Com 
position.     Chap.  IV.  Government. 

BOOK  V.  THE  SCHOOL-HOUSE.  Chap.  I.  Situation.  Chap.  II.  Size.  Chap.  III.  PositioB 
and  Arrangement.  Chap.  IV.  Light.  Warming.  Ventilation. 

THE  TEACHER'S  MANUAL,  by  Thomas  H.  Palmer.  Boston:  Marsh, 
Capen,  Lyon  &  Webb,  1840.  pp.  263.  Price,  75  cents. 

This  work  received  the  prize  of  five  hundred  dollars,  offered  by  the 
American  Institute  of  Instruction,  in  1838,  for  "  the  best  Essay  on  a  sys- 
tem of  Education  best  adapted  to  the  Common  Schools  of  our  country.'1 

CONTENTS.  PART  I.  Chapter  I.  Introductory.  Chapter  II.  Who  are  our  Schoolmas- 
ters. Chapter  III.  Physical  Education.  Chapter  IV.  Intellectual  Education.  Chapter  V.  In- 
tellectual Education,  continued.  Chapter  VI.  Moral  Education.  Chapter  VII.  Recapitulation, 

PART  II.  Chapter  I.  Introductory.  Chapter  II.  Physical  Education.  Chapter  III.  Physi- 
cal Education,  continued.  Chapter  IV.  Physical  Education,  continued.  Chapter  V.  Intellec- 
tual Education.  Chapter  VI.  Intellectual  Education,  continued.  Chapter  VII.  Intellectual 
Education,  continued.  Chapter  VIII.  Intellectual  Education,  continued.  Chapter  IX.  Intel- 
lectual Education,  continued.  Chapter  X.  Intellectual  Education,  concluded.  Chapter  XL 
Moral  Education.  Chapter  XII.  Moral  Education,  continued.  Chapter  XIII.  Conclusion. 

THE  TEACHER  TAUGHT,  by  Emerson  Davis,  late  Principal  of  the 
Westfield  Academy.  Boston:  Marsh,  Capen,  Lyon  &  Webb,  1839. 
pp.  79.  Price  37 i  cents. 

This  valuable  work  was  first  published  in  1833,  as  "An  Abstract  of  a 
Course  of  Lectures  on  School-keeping." 

SLATE  AND  BLACKBOARD  EXERCISES,  By  William  A.  Alcott.  New 
York:  Mark  H.  Newman.  Price  37  cents. 

The  chapters  in  this  little  work  were  first  published  in  the  Connecticut 
Common  School  Journal,  in  1841.  The  various  suggestions  and  methods 
are  highly  practical. 

THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING,  by  David  P.  Page,  Principal 
of  the  New  York  State  Normal  School.  New  York  :  A.  S.  Barnes  &  Co. 

CONTENTS.  CHAPTER  I.  The  Spirit  of  the  Teacher.  CHAPTER  II.  Responsibility  ot  the 
Teacher.  Sec.  I.  The  Neglected  Tree.  Sec.  II.  Extent  of  Responsibility.  Sec.  III.  The  Au- 
burn Prison.  CHAPTER  III.  Habits  of  the  Teacher.  CHAPTKR  IV.  Literary  Qualifications  of 
the  Teacher.  CHAPTER  V.  Right  Views  of  Education.  CHAPTER  VI.  Right  Modes  of  Teach 
ing.  Sf.c.  1.  Pouring-in  Process.  Sec.  II.  Drawing-out  Process.  See.  III.  The  more  Excel- 
lent Way.  Sec.  IV.  Waking  up  Mind.  Sec.  V.  Remarks.  CHAPTER  VII.  Conducting  Recita 
tions.  CHAPTER  VIII.  Exciting  an  Interest  in  Study.  Sec.  I.  Incentives.  Emulation.  Sec. 
II.  Prizes  and  Rewards.  Sec.  III.  Proper  Incentives.  CHAPTER  IX.  School  Government. 
Sec.  I.  Requisites  in  the  Teacher  for  Government.  Sec.  II.  Means  of  securing  Good  Order. 
Sec.  III.  Punishments,  Improper,  Proper.  Sec.  IV.  Corporal  Punishment.  Sec.  V.  Limita- 
tions and  Suggestions.  CHAPTER  X.  School  Arrangements.  Sec.  I.  Plan  of  Day's  Work. 
Sec.  II.  Interruptions.  Sec.  III.  Recesses.  Sec.  IV.  Assignment  of  Lessons.  Sec.  V.  Re- 
views. Sec.  VI.  Examinations,  Exhibitions,  Celebrations.  CHAPTER  XI.  The  Teacher's  Re- 
lation to  the  Parents  of  his  I'upils.  CHAPTER  XII.  The  Teacher's  Care  of  his  Health.  CHAP- 
TER XIII.  The  Teacher's  Relation  to  his  Proftssion.  CHAPTER  XIV.  Miscellaneous  Sugges- 
tions. Sec.  I.  Things  to  be  avoided.  Sec.  II.  Things  to  be  performed.  CHAPTER  XV.  The 
Rewards  of  the  Teacher. 

HINTS  AND  METHODS  FOR  THE  USE  OF  TEACHERS.  Hartford:  Price 
25  cents. 

This  volume  is  made  up  principally- of  selections  from  publications  on 
methods  of  teaching,  not  easily  accessible  ;  and  under  each  subject  dis- 
cussed, reference  is  made  to  various  volumes,  where  additional  sugges- 
tions can  be  found. 

THE  DISTRICT  SCHOOL  AS  IT  WAS,  by  one  who  went  to  it,  (Rev. 
Warren  Burton.)  New  York :  J.  Orville  Taylor,  1838. 

In  this  amusing  picture  of  "  the  lights  and  shadows"  of  school  life  as  it 
was  in  New  England  twenty  years  ago,  the  teachers  and  scholars  of 
some  of  our  District  Schools  as  they  are,  will  recognize  the  school-house, 
books,  practices,  and  methods  with  which  they  are  too  familiar. 


BOOKS  ON  EDUCATION.  415 

CONFESSIONS  OF  A  SCHOOL-MASTER,  by  Dr.  William  A.  Alcott.  New 
York:  Mark  H.  Newman.  Price  50  cents. 

If  our  teachers  will  read  these  confessions  of  errors  of  omission  and 
commission,  and  the  record  which  it  gives  of  real  excellencies  attained  by 
the  steps  of  a  slow  and  laborious  progress,  they  will  save  themselves 
the  mortification  of  the  first,  and  realize  earlier  the  fruits  of  the  last. 
Few  men  have  the  moral  courage  to  look  their  former  bad  methods  so 
directly  in  the  face.  Every  young  teacher  should  read  this  book. 

CONTENTS.  CHAPTER  I.  My  INTRODUCTION  TO  SCHOOL  KEEPING.  Section  I.  Prepara 
tion  and  Engagement.  Section  II.  The  Examination.  Section  III.  My  Cogitations. 

CHAPTER  II.  MY  FIRST  YEAR.  Section  I.  First  day  of  School.  Secti on  II.  General  Course 
of  Instruction.  Section  111.  Particular  Errors.  Section  IV.  Religious  Exercises. 

CHAPTER  III.    MY  SECOND  YEAR.    Section  1.  Course  of  Instruction.    Section  11.  Serious 

CHAPTER  IV.  MY  THIRD  YEAR.  Sectionl.  Complaint  to  the  Grand  Jurors.  Sectionll. 
Introduction  of  a  New  School  Book.  Sectinn  111.  Meeting  of  the  Schools. 

CHAPTER  V.  FOURTH  AND  FIFTH  YEARS.  Section  I.  Modes  of  Punishing.  Section  11.  At- 
tending to  other  Employments.  Section  111.  Late  Evening  Visits.  Section  IV.  Studies  and 
Methods. 

CHAPTER  VI.  MY  SIXTH  YEAR.  Section  1.  Teaching  by  the  Year.  Terms  and  Object. 
Section  II.  Description  of  the  School  and  School-house.  Section  III.  First  Efforts  at  Im- 
provement. Punctuality.  Section  IV.  Methods  and  Discipline.  Section  V.  Schools  Neglected 
by  Parents.  Section  VI.  School  Libraries.  Section  VII.  Improper  Company.  Example. 

CHAPTER  VII.  Mv  SEVENTH  YEAR.  Section  1.  Divided  Attention.  Section  II.  Teaching 
on  the  Sabbath. 

CHAPTER  VIII.  MY  EIGHTH  YEAR.  Section  1.  General  Account  of  my  School.  Section  11. 
Causes  of  Failure. 

CHAPTER  IX.  MY  NINTH  YEAR.  Section  1.  A  Novel  Enterprise.  Section  II.  Methods  of 
Teaching.  Discipline. 

CHAPTER  X.  MY  EXPERIENCE  AS  A  SCHOOL  VISITOR.  Section  I.  Examination  of  Teachers. 
Section  11.  Special  Visits  to  Schools.  Section  111.  Meetings  for  Improvement.  Section  IV. 
Introduction  of  a  New  Reading  Book. 

CHAPTER  XI.  MY  TENTH  YEAR  IN  SCHOOL.  Section  I.  Commencement  of  School  Sec- 
tion II.  Spelling,  Reading,  Writing,  etc.  Section  111.  Teaching  Geography.  Section  IV.  A 
Practical  Exercise.  Section  V.  Experiment  in  Teaching  Etymology.  Section  VI.  Teaching 
Orthography.  Section  VII.  Forcing  Knowledge.  Section  VIII.  Teaching  Pupils  to  sit  stilt 
Section  IX.  "My  Moral  Influence.  Section  X.  My  111  Health.  Section  XI.  Countenancing  the 
Sports  of  my  Pupils.  Section  XII.  Discipline. 

THE  SCHOOL  TEACHER'S  MANUAL,  by  Henry  Dunn,  Secretary  of  the 
British  and  Foreign  School  Society,  London.  Hartford:  Reed  &  Bar- 
ber. 1839.  pp.  223.  Price  50  cents. 

The  American  edition  of  this  work  is  edited  by  Rev.  Thomas  H.  Gal- 
laudet,  which  is  the  best  evidence  that  could  be  given  of  the  general 
soundness  of  the  views  presented  by  the  English  author. 

TEACHERS'  INSTITUTE,  by  W.  B.  Fowle.     Boston. 

TEACHING  A  SCIENCE:  THE  TEACHER  AN  ARTIST,  by  Rev.  B.  R. 
Hall.  New  York:  Baker  &  Scribner. 

CORPORAL  PUNISHMENT,  by  Lyman  Cobb.  New  York:  Mark  H. 
Newman. 

SCHOOL  KEEPING,  by  an  Experienced  Teacher.  Philadelphia:  John 
Grigg,  1831. 

THE  SCHOOL-MASTER'S  FRIEND,  with  the  Committee-man's  Guide,  by 
Theodore  Dwight,  Jr.  pp.  360.  New  York,  Roe  Lockwood,  415,  Broad- 
way, 1835. 

THE  TEACHER,  or  Moral  Influences  in  the  Instruction  and  Govern- 
ment of  the  Young,  by  Jacob  Abbott.  Boston,  Whipple  &  Damrell,  No. 
9  Cornhill,  Boston.  Price  75  cents. 

THEORY  OF  TEACHING,  with  a  few  practical  Illustrations,  by  a  Teacher. 
Boston :  E.  P.  Peabody,  1841.  pp.  128. 

DISTRICT  SCHOOL,  by  J.  Orville  Taylor.  New  York:  Harper  & 
Brothers,  1834. 


416  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

LECTURES  ON  EDUCATION,  by  Horace  Mann.  Secretary  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts Board  of  Education.  Boston:  Fowle&  Capen,  1845.  Pp.  338, 
Price  $1.00. 

This  volume  embraces  seven  lectures,  most  of  which  were  delivered 
before  the  Annual  Common  School  Conventions,  held  in  the  several 
counties  of  Massachusetts,  in  1838,  '39,  '40,  '41,  and  '42.  They  are  pub- 
lished in  this  form  at  the  request  of  the  Board  of  Education.  No  man, 
teacher,  committee,  parent,  or  friend  of  education  generally,  can  read 
these  lectures  without  obtaining  much  practical  knowledge,  and  without 
being  fired  with  a  holy  zeal  in  the  cause. 

CONTENTS.  Lecture  I.  Means  and  Objects  of  Common  School  Education.  Lecture  II 
Special  Preparation,  a  prerequisite  to  Teaching.  Lecture  III.  The  Necessity  of  Education  in 
a  Republican  Government.  Lecture  IV.  What  God  does,  and  what  He  leaves  for  Man  to  do,  in 
*he  work  of  Education.  Lecture  V.  An  Historical  View  of  Education;  showing  its  Dignity 
and  its  Degradation.  Lecture  VI.  On  District  School  Libraries.  Lecture  V 'II.  On  School  Pun- 
ishments. 

LOCKE  AND  MILTON  ON  EDUCATION.     Boston:  Gray  &  Brown,  1830. 

THE  EDUCATION'  OF  MOTHERS,  by  L.  Aime-Martin.  Philadelphia: 
Lea  £  Blanchard,  1843. 

EDUCATION  AND  HEALTH,  by  Amariah  Brigham.  Boston:  Marsh, 
Capen  &  Lyon,  1843. 

DR.  CHANNING  ON  SELF  CULTURE.  Boston:  Monroe  &  Co.  Price 
33  cents. 

Miss  SEDGWICK  ON  SELF  TRAINING,  OR  MEANS  AND  ENDS.  New 
York :  Harper  &  Brothers. 

These  two  volumes,— the  first  written  with  special  reference  to  young 
men,  and  the  last,  to  young  women,  should  be  read  by  all  young  teachers, 
who  would  make  their  own  individual  character,  attainments,  and  con- 
duct, the  basis  of  all  improvement  in  their  profession. 

The  following  works  have  special  reference  to  instruction  in  Infant  and 
Primary  Schools : 

EXERCISES  FOR  THE  SENSES.  London:  Charles  Knight  &  Co.  Pub- 
lished under  the  superintendence  of  the  Society  for  the  Diffusion  of  Use- 
ful Knowledge. 

LESSONS  ON  OBJECTS  :  as  given  to  children  between  the  ages  of  six 
and  eight,  in  a  Pestalozzian  School  at  Cheam,  Sussex,  by  C.  Mayo. 
London:  Seeley,  Burnside  &  Seeley,  Fleet  street,  1845. 

LESSONS  ON  SHELLS,  as  given  to  children  between  the  ages  of  eight 
and  ten,  and  by  the  author  of  "Lessons  on  Objects."  London:  Seeley, 
Burnside  &  Seeley,  1846. 

PATTERSON'S  ZOOLOGY  FOR  SCHOOLS.     London. 

MODEL  LESSONS  FOR  INFANT  SCHOOL  TEACHERS,  by  the  author  of 
"  Lessons  on  Objects."  Parts  I.  and  II.  London:  Seeley.  Burnside  & 
Seeley,  1846. 

WILDERSPIN'S  INFANT  SYSTEM.  London:  James  S.  Hodgson,  112 
Fleet  street. 

WILDERSPIN'S  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION.  London:  James  S.  Hodgson. 

CHAMBERS'  EDUCATIONAL  COURSE, — INFANT  EDUCATION,  from  two  to 
six  years  of  age.  Edinburgh:  W.  R.  Chambers. 

PRACTICAL  EDUCATION, by  Maria  Edgeworth.  New  York:  Harper  & 
Brothers,  1835. 


BOOKS  ON  EDUCATION.  417 

THE  TEACHER  AND  PARENT;  a  Treatise  upon  Common  School  Edu- 
cation. By  Charles  Northend.  New  York :  A.  S.  Barnes  &  Co.  Price 
75  cents. 

This  is  a  valuable  treatise,  full  of  practical  suggestions  to  teachers 
and  parents,  by  one  who  has  felt  the  want  of  such  suggestions  while  act- 
ing as  teacher  of  the  Epes  Grammar  School  in  Salem,  and  more  re- 
cently as  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  in  Danvers,  Mass. 

CONTENTS,  PART  I.  CHAPTER  I.  Common  Schools.  II.  The  Teacher.  III.  Thorough 
Knowledge,  Aptness  to  Teach,  Accuracy,  Patience,  and  Perseverance.  IV.  Candor,  Truth- 
fulness, and  Courteuusness.  V.  Ingenuity,  Individuality.  VI.  Kindness,  Gentleness,  For- 
bearance, aii'1  Cheerfulness.  VII.  Common  Sense,  Knowledge  of  Human  Nature,  General 
Information,  Desire  to  do  Good,  and  Hopefulness.  VIII.  Correct  Moral  Principles,  Exem- 
plary Habits  and  Deportment ;  Diligence.  IX.  Neatness  and  Order ;  Self-Control.  X.  Ear- 
nestness, Enenry.  Enthusiasm.  XI.  Judgment  and  Prudence;  System  and  Punctuality;  In- 
dependence. XII.  Professional  Feeling  and  Interest ;  a  Deep  and  Well-grounded  Interest  in 
Teaching.  XIII.  Means  of  Improvement.  XIV.  Teaching.  XV.  Discipline.  XVI.  Means 
of  Interesting  Pupils  and  Parents.  XVII.  Moral  Instruction.  XVIII  Emulation  and  Prizes. 
XIX.  Primary  Schools.  XX.  Lessons  and  Recitations.  XXI.  Examinations  and  Exhibi- 
tions. XXII.  Multiplicity  of  Studies.  XXIII.  Reading.  XXIV.  Spelling.  XXV.  Penman- 
ship.  XXVI.  Geography.  XXVII.  Grammar.  XXVIII.  Letter  Writing  and  Composition. 
XXIX.  Arithmetic.  XXX.  Book-Keeping ;  Declamation.  XXXI.  Singing.  XXXII.  Mis- 
cellaneous. 

PART  II.  CHAPTER  I.  Introductory  Remarks.  II.  School  Houses.  III.  Children  should 
not  be  sent  to  School  loo  Young.  IV.  To  Provide  Good  Teachers.  V.  School  Supervision. 

VI.  Parents  should  Encourage  the  Teacher.    VII.  Specific  Duties.    V11I.  Candor  and  Chari- 
tableness.   IX.  High  and  Honorable  Motives. 

AMERICAN  EDUCATION  ;  its  Principles  and  Elements.  By  Edward 
D.  Mansfield.  New  York :  A.  S.  Barnes  U  Co.,  1853. 

This  is  a  philosophical  discussion  of  the  principles,  and  not  a  practical 
treatise  on  the  modes  of  instruction,  in  the  several  subjects  treated  of. 

CONTENTS.  CHAPTER  I.  The  idea  of  a  Republic.  II.  Means  o<"  perpetuating  Civil  and 
Religious  Liberty.  HI.  The  idea  of  American  Education.  IV.  The  Teacher— his  qualifica- 
tions, teaching,  and  character.  V.  The  idea  of  Science.  VI.  The  Ulility  of  Mathemalics. 

VII.  The  Utility  of  Astronomy.    VIII.  The  Utility  of  History.    IX.  The  Science  of  Language. 
X.  Literature  a  Means  of  Education.    XI.  Conversation  an  Instructor     XII.  The  Constitu- 
tion the  Law-book  of  the  Nation.      XIII.   The  Bible  the  Law-book  from  Heaven.     XIV. 
The  Education  of  Women.     Elementary  Ideas.     The  Future. 

THE  TEACHER'S  INSTITUTE;  or,  Familiar  Hints  to  Young  Teachers. 
By  William  B.  Fowle.  Boston :  Lemuel  N.  Ide,  1849.  Price  75  cents. 

Mr.  Fowle  has  had  a  long  and  successful  experience  as  a  teacher,  par- 
ticularly in  the  monitorial  system,  and  has  been  eminently  successful  in 
conducting  the  exercises  of  Teachers'  Institutes,  or  gatherings  of  young 
teachers  for  the  purpose  of  instruction,  in  the  matter  and  manner  of 
teaching.  This  volume  embraces  the  results  of  his  experience,  both  as 
a  teacher  of  children  and  of  teachers. 

CONTENTS.  Reading.  Spelling.  Arithmetic.  Mental  Arithmetic.  Writing.  Drawing. 
Lectures  on  Geography.  Remarks  on  Geography.  Lecture  on  the  U*es  and  Abuses  of  Mem- 
ory. English  Grammar.  Composition.  Letters  on  the  Monitorial  System.  Remarks  on 
the  Use  of  Monitors.  Neatness.  The  Opening  and  Closing  of  School.  Music.  Emulation 
and  Discipline.  Conclusion. 

POPULAR  EDUCATION  ;  for  the  use  of  Teachers  and  Parents.  By  Ira 
Mayhevv.  New  York :  Burgess  &  Cady.  Price  75  cents. 

This  Treatise  was  prepared  and  published  in  accordance  with  a  reso- 
lution of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  of  the  State  of 
Michigan,  by  the  author,  while  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction. 

CONTENTS.  CHAPTER  I.  In  what  does  a  correct  Education  cons;st  ?  II  The  Import- 
ance of  Physical  Education.  III.  Physical  Education— The  Laws  of  Health.  IV.  The  Laws 
of  Health— Philosophy  of  Respiration.  V.  The  Nature  of  Intellectual  and  Moral  Education. 
VI.  The  Education  of  the  Five  Senses.  VII.  The  Necessity  of  Moral  and  Religious  Educa- 
tion. VIII.  The  Importance  of  Popular  Education.  Education  d  ssipafes  the  Evils  of  Igno 
ranee.  Education  increases  the  productiveness  of  Labor.  Education  diminishes  Pauperism 
and  Crime.  Education  increases  human  Happiness.  IX.  Political  Necessity  of  National 
Education.  The  Practicability  of  National  Education.  X.  The  Means  of  Universal  Educa 
tion.  Good  School-houses  should  be  provided.  Well-qualified  Teachers  should  be  em 
ployed.  Schools  should  continue  through  the  Year.  Every  Cuild  should  attend  School 
The  redeeming  Power  of  Common  Schools.  Index. 

27 


418  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

LECTURES  AND  PROCEEDINGS  OF  THE  AMERICAN  INSTITUTE  OP  IN- 
STRUCTION from  1830  to  1853. 

These  volumes  embrace  more  than  150  lectures  and  essays,  on  a  great 
variety  of  important  topics,  by  some  of  the  ablest  scholars  and  most  suc- 
cessful teachers  in  the  country. 

CONTENTS. — VOL.  I,  for  1830.  Introductory  Discourse,  by  President  Wayland.  Lecture 
I.  Physical  Education,  by  John  C.  Warren,  M.  D.  Lecture  II.  The  Development  of  the  In- 
tellectual Faculties,  and  on  Teaching  Geography,  by  James  G.  Carter.  Lecture  III.  The  In- 
fant School  System,  by  William  Russell.  Lecture  IV.  The  Spelling  of  Words,  and  a  Rational 
Method  of  Ti  aching  their  Meaning,  by  Gideon  F.  Thayer.  Lecture  V.  Lyceums  and  Socie- 
ties for  the  Diffusion  of  Useful  Knowledge,  by  Nchemiah  CleaveJand.  Lecture  VI.  Practical 
Method  of  Teaching  Rhetoric,  by  Samuel  P.  Newman.  Lecture  Vll.  Geometry  and  Algebra, 
by  F.  J.  Grund.  Lecture  VIII.  The  Monitorial  System  of  Instruction,  by  Henry  K.  Oliver. 
Lecture  IX.  Vocal  Aius.c,  by  William  C.  Woodbridge.  Lecture  X.  Linear  Drawing,  by 
Walter  R.  Johnson.  Lecture  XI.  Arithmetic,  by  Warren  Col/iurn.  Lecture  XII.  Classical 
Learning,  by  Cornelius  C.  Felton.  Lecture  XIII.  The  Construction  and  Furnishing  of  School- 
Ilooms  and  School  Apparatus,  by  William  J.  Adams. 

VOL.  II.  for  1831.  Introductory  Lecture,  by  James  Walker.  Lecture  I.  Education  of  Fe- 
males, by  George  D.  Emerson.  Lecture  II.  Moral  Education,  by  Jacob  Abbott.  Lecture 
III.  Usefulness  of  Lyceums,  by  S.  C.  Phillips.  LecturelV.  Education  of  the  Five  Senses,  by 
William  H.  Brojks.  Lecture  V.  The  Means  which  may  be  employed  to  stimulate  the  Student 
without  the  aid  of  Emulation,  by  John  L.  Parkhurst.  Lecture  VI.  Grammar,  by  Gould 
Drown.  Lecture  VII.  Influence  of  Academies  and  High  Schools  on  Common  Schools,  by  Wil- 
liam C.  Fowler.  Lecture  VIII.  Natural  History  as  a  Branch  of  Common  Education,  by  Cle- 
ment Durgin.  Prize  Essay  on  School-Houses,  by  W.  A.  Alcott. 

VOL.  Ill,  for  1832. — Introductory  Discourse,  by  Francis  C.  Gray.  Lecture  I.  The  best 
Methods  of  Teaching  the  Living  Languages,  by  George  Ticknor.  Lecture  II.  Some  of  tha 
Diseases  of  a  Literary  Life,  by  G.  Ilayward,  M.  D.  Lecture  III.  The  Utility  of  Vis.ble  Illus- 
trations, by  Walter  R.  Johnson.  Lecture  IV.  The  Moral  Influences  of  Physical  Science,  by 
John  Pierpont.  Lecture  V.  Prize  Essay,  on  the  Teaching  of  Penmanship,  by  B.  B.  Foster. 
Lecture  VI.  Nature  and  Means  of  Early  Education,  as  deduced  from  Experience,  by  A.  B. 
Alcott.  Lecture  VII.  On  Teaching  Grammar  and  Composition,  by  Asa  Rand. 

VOL.  IV,  for  1833.— Introductory  Lecture,  by  William  Sullivan.  Lecture  I.  On  the  Impor- 
tance of  a  Knowledge  of  the  Principles  of  Physiology  to  Parents  and  Teachers,  by  Edward 
Reynolds,WL.  D.  Lecture  II.  The  Classification  of  Schools,  Ly  Samuel  M.  Burnside.  Lec- 
ture III.  Primary  Education,  by  Gardner  B.  Perry.  Lecture  IV.  Emulation  in  Schools  by 
Leonard  Within gion.  Lecture  V.  The  best  Method  of  Teaching  the  Ancient  Languages,  by 
Alpheus  S.  Packard.  Lecture  VI.  Jacotot's  Method  of  Instruction,  by  George  W.  Greene. 
Lecture  VII.  The  best  Method  of  Teaching  Geography,  by  W.  C.  Woodbridge.  Lecture  VIII. 
Necessity  of  Educating  Teachers,  by  Samuel  R.  Hall.  Lecture.  IX.  The  Adaptation  of  Intel- 
lectual Philosophy  to  Instruction,  by  Abijah  R.  Baker.  Lecture  X.  The  best  Mode  of  Teach- 
ing Natural  Phdosophy,  by  Benjamin  Hale. 


VOL.  V.  1S34.— Introductory  Lecture,  by  Caleb  Gushing.  Lecture  I.  The  best  Mode  of  Fix 
ig  the  Attention  of  the  Young,  by  Warren  Burton.  Lecture  II.  The  Improvement  which 
may  be  made  in  the  Condition  of  Common  Schools,  by  Stephen  Farley.  Lecture  III.  Duties 


of  Parents  in  regard  to  the  Schools  where  their  Children  are  Instructed,  by  Jacob  Abbott. 
Lecture  IV.  Maternal  Instruction  and  Management  of  Infant  Schools,  by  M.  M.  Carll.  Lecture 
V.  Teaching  the  Elements  of  Mathematics,  by  Thomas  Sherwin.  Lecture  VI  The  Dangerous 
Tendency  to  Innovations  and  Extremes  in  Education,  by  Hubbard  Winslow.  Lecture  VII.  Un- 
ion of  Manual  with  Mental  Labor,  in  a  System  of  Education,  by  Beriah  Green.  Lecture  VIII. 
The  History  and  Uses  of  Chemistry,  by  C.  T.  Jackson.  Lecture  IX.  Natural  History  as  a 
Study  in  Common  Schools,  by  A.  A.  Gould,  M.  D.  Lecture  X.  Science  of  Government  as  a 
Branch  of  Popular  Education,  by  Joseph  Story. 

VOL.  VI,  for  1835.— Introductory  Lecture,  by  W.  H.  Furness.  Lecturel.  The  Study  of  the 
Classics,  by  A.  Crosby.  Lecture  II.  Education  for  an  Agricultural  People,  by  Samuel  Nott,  Jr. 
Lecture  III.  Political  Influence  of  Schoolmasters,  by  E.  Washburn.  Lecture  IV.  State  and 
Prospects  of  the  German  Population  of  this  Country,  by  H.  Bokum.  Lecture  V.  Religious  Ed- 
ucation, by  R.  Park.  Lecture  VI.  Importance  of  an  Acquaintance  with  the  Philosophy  of  the 
Mind  loan  Instructor,  by  J.  Gregg.  Lecture  VII.  Ends  of  School  Discipline,  by  Henry  L. 
McKean.  Lecture  VIII.  Importance  and  Means  of  Cultivating  the  Social  Affections  among  Pu- 
pils, by  J.  Blanchard.  Lecture  IX.  Meaning  and  Objects  of  Education,  by  T.  B.  Fox.  Lec- 
ture X.  Management  of  a  Common  School,  by  T.  Dwight,  Jr.  Lecture  XI.  Moral  and  Spirit- 
ual Culture  in  E.trly  Education,  by  .R.  C.  Waterston.  LectureXll.  Moral  Uses  of  the  Study  cf 
Natural  History,  by  W.  Charming,  hi.  D.  Lecture  XIII.  Schools  of  the  Arts,  by  W.  Johnson. 

VOL.  VII.,  for  183").— Lecture  1.  Education  of  the  Blind,  by  Samuel  G.  Howe,  M.  D.  Lee- 
ture  II.  Thorough  Teaching,  by  William  H.  Brooks.  Lecture  III.  Physiology,  or  "The  House 
I  live  in,"  by  William  A.  Alcott.  Lecture  IV.  Incitements  to  Moral  and  Intellectual  Well- Doing. 
by  J.  H.  Belcher.  Lecture  V.  Duties  of  Female  Teachers  of  Common  Schools,  by  Daniel 
jtimbaH.  Lecture  VI.  Methods  of  Teaching  Elocution  in  Schools,  by  T.  D.  P.  Stone.  Lec- 
ture VII.  Influence  of  Intellectual  Action  on  Civilization,  by  //.  R.  Cleavdand.  Lectur*Vlll 
School  Discipline,  by  S.  R.  Hall. 

VOL.  VIII.,  for  1337.— Introductory  Discourse,  by  Rev.  Elipha  While.  Lecture  I.  Study  of 
the  Classics,  by  J.,hn  Mulligan.  Lecture  II.  Moral  Education,  by  Joshua  Bates.  Lecture  III. 
Study  of  Natural  History,  by  John  Lewis  Russell.  Lecture  IV.  Comparative  Merits  of  Private 
and  Public  Schools,  by  Theodore  Edson.  Lecture  V.  Elocution,  by  Datid  / "osdick,  Jr.  Lee- 


AMERICAN  INSTITUTE  OF  INSTRUCTION.  419 

fctre  VI.  Relation  between  the  Board  of  Trustees  and  the  Faculty  of  a  University,  &c..  bj  Ja§- 
per  Adams.  Lecture  VII.  School  Reform,  or  Teachers'  Seminaries,  by  Charles  Brooks.  Lec- 
ture VIII.  Teaching  of  Composition  in  Schools,  by  R.  G.  Parker.  Lecture  IX.  Evils  of  the 
Present  System  of  Primary  Instruction,  by  Thomas  H.  Palmer.  Lecture  X.  Reading  and 
Declamation,  by  William  Russell. 

VOL.  IX,  for  1838.— Lecture  I.  Literary  Responsibility  of  Teachers,  by  Charles  White.  Lec- 
ture II.  The  Head  and  the  Heart ;  or,  The  Relative  Importance  of  Intellectual  and  Moral  Cul- 
ture, by  Elisha  Bartlctt.  Lecture  III.  Vocal  Music  in  Common  Schools,  by  Joseph  Harring- 
ton, Jr.  Lecture  IV.  Model  Schools,  by  Thomas  D.  James.  Lecture  V.  Observations  on  the 
School  Svstem  of  Connecticut,  by  Denison  CHmsted.  Lecture  VI.  Teaching  of  English  Gram- 
mar, by  R.  G  Parker.  Lecture  VII.  Mutual  Duties  of  Parents  and  Teachers,  by  Dav  id  P. 
Page.  Lecture  VIII.  Man,  the  Subject  of  Education,  by  Samuel  G.  Goodrich. 

VOL.  X,  for  1839  —Introductory  Discourse,  The  Education  of  a  Free  People,  by  Robert  Ron- 
tout.  Jr.  Lecture  1.  Physiology  of  the  Skin,  by  John  G.  Metcalf,  M.  D  Lecture  II.  Mind  and 
Its  Developments,  by  Emerson  Davis.  Lecture  III.  A  Classic  Taste  in  our  Common  Schools, 
by  Luther  B.  Lincoln.  Lecture  IV.  Natural  Theology  as  a  Study  in  Schools,  by  Henry  A. 
Jffiles.  Lecture  V.  Division  of  Labor  in  Instruction,  by  Thomas  Gushing,  Jr.  Lecture  VI.  The 
Claims  of  our  Age  and  Country  upon  Teachers,  by  David  Mack.  Lecture  VII.  Progress  of 
Moral  Science,  and  its  Application  to  the  Business  ol  Practical  Life,  by  Alexander  H.  Everett. 
Lecture  VIII.  The  Comparative  Results  of  Education,  by  T.  P.  Rodman,  Lecture  IX.  Physi- 
cal Education,  by  Abel  L.  Pierson,  M.  D. 

VOL.  II.  NEW  SERIES,  for  1840.— Lecture  I.  Intellectual  Education  in  Harmony  with  Moral 
and  Physical,  by  Joshua  Bates.  Lecture  II.  Results  to  be  aimed  at  in  School  Instruction  and 
Disciplne.  by  T.  Cushing,  Jr.  Lecture  III.  Duty  of  Visiting  Schools,  by  Thomas  A.  Greene. 
Lecture  IV.  Objects  and  Means  of  School  Instruction,  by  A.  B.  Muzzey.  LectureV.  Courtesy, 
and  its  Connection  with  School  Instruction,  by  G.  F.  Thayer.  Lecture  VI.  On  the  Brain  and 
the  Stomach,  by  Usher  Parsons,  M.  D.  Lecture  ML  Common  Complaints  made  against 
Teachers,  by  Jacob  Abbott. 

VOL.  XII.  for  1341.— Lecture  I.  Best  Method  of  Preparing  and  Using  Spelling- Books,  by  Hor- 
ace Mann.  L/'Cture  II.  Best  Method  of  Exercising  the  Different  Faculties  of  the  Mind,  by  Wm. 
B.  Fowle.  Lecture  III.  Education  of  the  Laboring  Classes,  by  T.  Parker.  LecturelV.  Impor- 
tance of  the  Natural  Sciences  in  our  System  of  Popular  Education,  by  A.  Gray.  Lecture  V. 
Moral  Culture  Essential  to  Intellectual  Education,  by  E.  W.Robinson.  Lecture  VI.  Simpli- 
city of  Character,  as  Affected  by  the  Common  Systems  of  Educat.on,  by  J.  S.  Dwight.  Lec- 
ture VII.  Use  of  the  Globes  in  Teaching  Geography  and  Astronomy,  by  A.  Fleming.  Lecture 
VIII.  Elementary  Principles  of  Constitutional  Law,  as  a  Branch  of  Education  in  Common 
Schools,  by  Edicard  A.  Lawrence. 

VOL.  XIII,  for  1842.— Lecture  1.  Moral  Education,  by  George  B.  Emerson.  Lecture  II.  Uni- 
versal Language,  by  Samuel  G.  Howe.  Lecture  III.  The  Girard  College,  by  E.  C.  Wines. 
Lecture  IV.  School  "Room,  as  an  aid  to  Self- Education,  by  A.  B.  Muzzey.  Lecture  V.  Moral 
Responsibility  of  Teachers,  by  William  H.  Wood.  Lecture  VI.  The  Teacher's  Daily  Prepara- 
tion. 

VOL.  XIV.  for  1843.— Lecture  I.  The  Bible  in  Common  Schools,  by  Heman  Humphrey,  D.  D. 
Lecture  II.  The  Classification  of  Knowledge,  by  Solomon  Adams.  Lecture  III.  Moral  Dignity 
of  the  Teacher's  Office,  by  Prof.  /.  H.  Agnew.  Lecture  IV.  A  few  of  ihe  "Hows"  of  School- 
keeping,  by  Roger  S.  Howard.  Lecture  V.  Advancement  in  the  Means  and  Methods  of  Public 
Instruction,  by  David  P.  Page.  Lecture  VI.  Reading,  by  C.  Pierce.  Lecture  VII.  Some  of 
the  Duties  of  the  Faithful  Teacher,  by  Alfred  Greenleaf.  Lecture  VIII.  Some  of  the  Defects  of 
our  Systems  of  Education,  by  R.  B.  Hubbard.  Lecture  IX.  Importance  of  our  Common 
Schools,  by  S.  J.  May. 

VOL.  XV.  for  1844.— Lecture  I.  The  Religious  Element  in  Education,  by  Calvin  E.  Stotce. 
Lecture  II.  Female  Education,  by  William  Russell.  Lecture  III.  Some  of  the  Obstacles  to  the 
Greater  Success  of  Common  Schools,  by  Charles  Northend.  Lecture  IV.  Some  of  the  Dangers 
of  Teachers,  by  Daniel  P.  Galloup.  Lecture  V.  Natural  History  as  a  Regular  Classic  in  our 
Seminaries,  by  Charles  Brooks.  Lecture  VI.  Classical  Instruction,  by  A.  H.  Weld.  Lecture 
VII.  School  Discipline,  by  Joseph  Hale.  Lecture  VIII.  Methods  of  Teaching  to  Read,  by  Sam- 
uel .S'.  Greene.  Lecture  IX.  The  Duty  of  the  American  Teacher,  by  John  N.  Bellows.  Lec- 
ture X.  The  Necessity  of  Education  in  a  Republican  Form  of  Government,  by  Horace  Mann. 

VOL.  XVI,  for  1845.— Lecture  I.  Dignity  of  the  Teacher's  Office,  by  Joel  Haires,  D.  D.  Ad- 
dress. The  Formation  and  Excellence  of  the  Female  Characier.  by  Juef  Howes.  D.  D.  Lec- 
ture II.  The  Duties  of  Examining  Committees,  by  Prof.  E.  D.  Sanborn.  Lecturelll.  The  Per- 
fect Teacher,  by  Denison  Ohnstead.  L.  L.  D.  Lecture  IV.  Physiology,  by  Edicard  Jartis.  M.  D. 
LectureV.  Intellectual  Arithmetic,  by  F.  A.  Adams.  Lecture  VI.  County  Teachers' Institutes, 
by  Sa'em  Town.  Lecture  VII.  Geography,  by  William  B.  Fowle.  Lecture  VIII.  Vocal  Ma- 
gic in  Common  Schools,  by  A.  N.  Johnson.  Lecture  IX.  History,  by  George  S.  Hillard. 

VOL  XVII,  for  1846. — Journal  of  Proceedings.  List  of  Officers.  Annual  Report.  Le«- 
ture  I.  Home  Preparation  for  School,  by  Jason  Whitman.  Lecture  II.  The  Influence  of  Moral 
upon  Intellectual  Improvement,  by  H.  B.  Hooker.  Lecture  III.  The  Essentials  of  a  Common 
School  Education,  and  the  conditions  most  favorable  to  their  Attainment,  by  Rufus  Putnam. 
Lecture  IV.  The  Education  of  the  Faculties,  and  the  Proper  Employment  of  Young  Children, 
by  Samuel  J.  May.  Lecture  V.  The  Obligation  of  Towns  to  Elevate  the  Character  of  our  Com- 
mon Schools,  by  Luther  B.  Lincoln.  Lecture  VI.  Importance  of  Cultivating  Taste  in  Early 
Life,  by  Ariel  Parish.  Lecture  VII.  On  Phonotypy  and  Phonography,  or  Speech  Writing  and 
Speecti-Printins,  by  Stephen  P.  Andrews.  Lecture  VIII.  On  the  Study  of  the  English  Lan- 
guage, by  D.  Huntington. 

VOL.  XVIII,  for  1847.— Journal  of  Proceedings.  List  of  Officers.  Lecture  I.  On  the  Sturty 
of  Language,  by  Hubbard  Winslow.  Lecture  II.  On  the  Appropriateness  of  Studies  to  the  State 
of  Mental  Development,  by  Thomas  P '.  Rodman. 


420 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


VOL.  XIX.,  for  1848.  Journal  of  Proceedings.  List  of  Officers.  Lecture  I.  Failures  in 
teaching,  by  John  Kingsbury.  Lecture  II.  Co-operation  of  Parents  and  Teachers,  by  Jacob 
Batchclder.  Lecture  111.  Qualifications  of  the  Teacher,  by  llev.  Nathan  Munroe.  Lecture 
IV.  School  Government,  by  J.  D.  Philbrick.  Lecture  V.  The  Improvement  of  Common 
Schools,  by  Wm.  D.  Swan. 

VOL.  XX  ,  for  1849.  Journal  of  Proceedings.  List  of  Officers.  Lecture  I.  The  Defect  of 
the  Principle  of  Religious  Authority  in  Modern  Education,  by  John  If.  Hopkins,  D.D. 
Lecture  II.  The  Education  demanded"  by  the  peculiar  character  of  our  Civil  Institutions,  by 
Benjamin  Larabee,  D.  D.  Lecture  III.  Earnestness,  by  Roger  S.  Howard.  Lecture  IV. 
The  Essentials  of  Education,  by  Thomas  II.  Palmer.  Lecture  V.  The  Claims  of  Natural 
History,  as  a  branch  of  Common  School  Education,  by  William  O.  Ayers.  Lecture  VI.  Edu- 
cation the  Condition  of  National  Greatness,  by  Prof.  E.  D.  Sanborn.  Lecture  VII.  The 
Duties  of  Legislatures  in  relation  to  the  Public  Schools  in  the  United  States,  by  Rev.  Charles 
Brooks.  Lecture  VIII.  Practical  Education,  by  W.  C.  Goldthwait. 

VOL.  XXI ,  for  1850.    Journal  of  Proceedings.     List  of  Officers.     Annual  Report.     Lecture 

I.  God's  Plan  for  Educating  Man,  by  C.  C.  Chase.    Lecture  II.  Political  Economy,  as  a  Study 
for  Common  Schools,  by  .Amosa  Walker.    Lecture  111   The  Importance  of  Early  Training, 
by  Solumon  Jenner.     Lecture  IV.  Characteristics  of  the  True  Teacher,  by  John  D.  Phil- 
brick.    Lecture  V.  Influence  of  the  Social  Relations  in  the  West  upon  Professional  Usefulness 
and  Success,  by   Edward  Wyman..    Appendix.    Instruction  in  H  story,  by  Elizabeth  P. 
Peabady.    General  Index,  from  1830  to  1850.     List  of  Members,  Past  and  Present. 

VOL.  XXII.,  for  1851.  Journal  of  Proceedings.  List  of  Officers.  Annual  Report.  Lec- 
ture I.  Teachers'  Morals  and  Manners,  by  Henry  K.  Oliver.  Lecture  II.  The  Supervision 
of  Schools,  by  D.  B.  Hagar.  Lecture  III.  The  Teacher  in  the  Nineteenth  Century,  by 
Thomas  Cashing,  Jr.  LecturelV.  Importance  of  Moral  and  Religious  Education  in  a  Re- 
public, by  William  D  Northend.  Lecture  V.  The  Manifestations  of  Education  in  Different 
Ages,  by  Saniutl  W.  Bates.  Lecture  VI.  On  the  Present  Condition  and  Wants  of  Common 
Schools,  by  Rev.  L.  W.  Leonard.  Lecture.  VII.  Methods  of  Teaching  Spelling,  by  Christo- 
pher A.  Green.  Lecture  VIII.  Physical  Education,  by  Rev.  Darwin  H.  Ranney. 

VOL.  XV.,  for  IS52.  Proceedings.  List  of  Officers.  Annual  Report.  Lecture  I.  The  In- 
centives to  Mental  Culture  among  Teachers,  by  James  D.  Butler.  Lecture  II.  Dr.  Thomas 
Arnoid,  by  Joshua  Bates,  Jr.  Lecture  III  Self  Reliance,  by  William  H.  Wells.  Lecture 

IV.  The  School  System  of  the  State  of  New  York,  by  Joseph  McKeen.    Lecture  V.  Essen- 
tial Elements  in  American  Educatian,  by   Charles  H.  Wheeler.    Lecture  VI.    Drawing,  a 
Means  of  Education,  by  William  J.  Whituker. 

VOL.  XXIV.,  for  1853.    Journal  of  Proceedings.     List  of  Officers.    Prize  Essay,  by  E.  A. 

II.  Allen.     Lecture  I.  Reading,  by  F.  T.Russell.    Lecture  11.  Life  and  Educational  Princi- 
ples of  Pestaiozzi,  by  Hermann  Kruisi. 

TRANSACTIONS  OF  THE  WESTERN  LITERARY  INSTITUTE  AND  COLLEGE 
OF  PROFESSIONAL  TEACHERS,  from  1834  to  1840. 

The  first  General  Convention  of  the  Teachers  of  the  West  was  held 
at  Cincinnati,  in  June  1831,  under  the  auspices  of  the  "  Academic  Insti- 
tute," and  the  proceedings  and  addresses  were  published  in  No.  1,  of  the 
Academic  Pioneer.  The  second  General  Convention  was  held  in  Octo- 
ber, 1832,  at  which  the  teachers  organized  a  Constitution  and  officers 
under  the  name  of  the  "  College  of  Teachers,"  which  held  a  meeting 
in  October,  1833.  In  October,  1834,  the  fourth  annual  meeting  was 
held  at  Cincinnati,  the  proceedings  and  lectures  of  which  meeting  were 
published,  and  constitute  the  first  volume  of  the  "Transactions,"  &c. 
A  volume  of  Transactions  was  published  every  year,  from  1834  to  1840. 

VOLUME  L,  for  1834.  Journal  of  Proceed insrs.  Constitution.  Names  of  Members.  I. 
Opening  Address,  by  Albert  Picket.  II  The  Philosophy  of  Family,  School,  and  College 
D.scipline,  by  Daniel  Drake.  III.  Study  of  the  Greek  anil  Latin  Languages,  as  a  part  in  the 
course  of  a  liberal  education,  by  T.  M.  Post.  IV.  Neither  the  classics  nor  the  mathematics 
should  form  apart  of  a  scheme  of  General  Education  in  our  country,  by  Thomas  S.  Grimke, 

V.  Utility  of  the  Mathematics,  by  E.  D.  Mansfield.    VI.    Report  on  the  question,  "  Ought  the 
classics  to  constitute  a  part  of  Education/'  by  Alexander  Kinmont.     VII.  The  appl  ration  of 
Principles  to  Practice,  in  the  various  departments  of  Physical  Science,  by  Elijah  S.'ack.    VIII. 
The  Government  of  Public  Literary  Institutions,  by  AT.  A.  H.  Niles.     IX.  The  History  and 
Moral  Influence  of  Music,  by  William  Nixon.    X.  The  best  method  of  Teaching  Languages, 
by  William  Hoojncood. 

TRANSACTIONS  OF  THE  MASSACHUSETTS  TEACHERS'  ASSOCIATION 
Edited  by  the  Secretary.  Boston  :  Samuel  Coolidge.  1852. 

CONTENTS.— VOL.  L,  for  1845  to  1847.  Origin  of  the  Association.  Proceedings  of  the  Asso- 
ciation. First  Annual  Session.  Second  Annual  Session.  Third  Annual  Session.  Lccturel. 
On  the  Claims  of  Teaching  to  the  rank  of  a  Distinct  Profession,  by  Elbridge  Smith.  Lecture 
II.  On  the  first  Principles  of  School  Government,  by  Rrv.  J.  P.  Coioles.  Lecture  III.  On  th« 
Management  of  the  School-room,  by  Ariel  Parish  Lecture  IV.  On  Thorough  Instruction, 
by  Joseph  Hale.  Lecture  V.  On  the  Relation  of  Education  to  its  Age,  by  Samuel  W.  Bates. 
Lecture  VI.  On  the  Relation  of  Common  Schools  to  Higher  Seminaries,  by  Rev.  Charles 
Hammond.  Lecture  VII.  On  Teaching  as  a  Profession,  by  N.  Wheeler.  Constitution.  Index. 


BOOKS  ON  EDUCATION.  421 

The  following  works  will  exhibit  a  pretty  full  view  of  the  progress  and 
condition  of  education  in  Europe. 

SMITH'S  HISTORY  OP  EDUCATION.  Harper  &  Brothers.  Price  50 
cents. 

This  work  is  substantially  an  abridgement  of  the  great  German  work 
of  Schwartz,  and  is  worthy  of  an  attentive  perusal,  not  only  for  its  his 
torical  view  of  the  subject,  but  for  the  discussion  of  the  general  principles 
which  should  be  recognized  in  every  system  of  education. 

BIBER'S  MEMOIR  OF  PESTALOZZI,  and  his  plan  of  Education.  London: 
I.  Souter,  1831. 

EDUCATIONAL  INSTITUTIONS  or  DR.  FELLENBERG,  with  an  Appendix 
containing  Woodbridge's  Sketches  of  Hofwyl.  London:  Longman^ 
1842. 

REPORT  ON  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE,  by  Alexander  Dallas  Bache. 
Philadelphia:  Lydia  R.  Bailey,  1829.  pp.  666. 

REPORT  ON  ELEMENTARY  INSTRUCTION  IN  EUROPE,  by  Calvin  E. 
Stowe,  D.  D.  Boston:  Thomas  H.  Webb  &  Co.  Price  31  cents. 

SEVENTH  ANNUAL  REPORT  of  the  Secretary  of  the  (Massachusetts) 
Board  of  Education,  Hon.  Horace  Mann,  1843.  Boston:  Fowle  and 
Capen.  Price  25  cents. 

These  three  reports  introduce  the  teacher  into  the  school-rooms  of  the 
best  teachers  in  Europe,  and  enable  him  to  profit  by  the  observations  and 
experience  of  men  who  have  been  trained  by  a  thorough  preparatory 
course  of  study  and  practice  at  home,  to  the  best  methods  of  classification, 
instruction,  and  government  of  schools,  as  pursued  abroad. 

ACCOUNT  OF  THE  EDINGURGH  SESSIONAL  SCHOOL,  Edinburgh,  by 
John  Wood.  Boston:  Monroe  &  Francis,  1830. 

COUSIN'S  REPORT  ON  PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION  IN  PRUSSIA,  translated 
by  Sarah  Austin.  New  York :  Wiley  &  Long,  1835. 

WILLM  ON  THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  PEOPLE,  translated  from  the 
French  by  Prof.  Nichol.  Glasgow:  1847. 

MANUAL  OF  THE  SYSTEM  OF  PRIMARY  INSTRUCTION  pursued  in  the 
model  schools  of  the  British  and  Foreign  School  Society.  London:  1839. 

MINUTES  OF  THE  PROCEEDINGS  OF  THE  COMMITTEE  OF  COUNCIL  ON 
EDUCATION,  from  1838  to  1844.  London  :  8  vols. 

STOW'S  TRAINING  SYSTEM,  as  pursued  in  the  Glasgow  Normal  Semi- 
nary. Edinburgh:  1840. 

AN  OUTLINE  OF  THE  METHODS  OF  TEACHING,  in  the  Model  School  o! 
the  Board  of  National  Education  for  Ireland.  Dublin:  I.  S.  Folds,  1840. 

COUSIN'S  REPORT  ON  PRIMARY  INSTRUCTION  IN  HOLLAND.  London: 
1835. 

GIRARDIN'S  REPORT  ON  EDUCATION  IN  AUSTRIA,  BAVARIA.  &c.  Paris : 
1835. 

HICKSON'S  ACCOUNT  OF  THE  DUTCH  AND  GERMAN  SCHOOLS.  London: 
Taylor  and  Walton,  1840. 

INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  SCIENCE  AND  ART  OF  EDUCATION  AND  INSTRUC- 
TION FOR  MASTERS  OF  PRIMARY  SCHOOLS,  by  B.  S.  Denzel,  President  of 
Royal  Training  College  for  School-masters  at  Esslin^en.  6  vols.  Stut- 
gard,  1839. 

This  is  considered  the  most  complete  German  Trea^se  on  the  subject 


422 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


NATIONAL  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE;  being  an  account  of  the  Organ- 
ization, Administration,  Instruction,  and  Statistics  of  Public  Schools  of  dif- 
ferent grades  in  the  principal  States.  By  Henry  Barnard.  New  York: 
C.  B.  Norton,  71,  Chambers-street.  894  pages.  Price  $3. 

This  volume  embraces  not  only  the  results  of  Mr.  Barnard's  observations 
in  schools  of  different  grades,  and  study  of  official  documents  during  two 
visits  to  Europe,  but  the  substance  of  the  elaborate  and  valuable  reports  of 
Professor  Calvin  E.  Stowe,  D.  D.,  to  the  Legislature  of  Ohio,  in  1837;  of 
President  Alexander  Dallas  Bache,  LL.  D.,  to  the  Trustees  of  the  Girard 
College  of  Orphans  in  Philadelphia,  in  1839 ;  of  Honorable  Horace  Mann, 
LL.  D.,  to  the  Massachusetts  Board  of  Education  in  1846;  and  of  Joseph 
Kay,  Esq.,  of  the  University  of  Oxford  in  1850,  on  the  subjects  treated  of: 
the  nature  and  variety  of  which,  can  be  seen  in  the  following  Index : 


Aberdeen,  industrial  schools,  512,  731. 
Adults,  schools  and  classes  for.  269,  399,  729. 
Adventure  schools  in  Scotland,  669. 
Agriculture,  schools  of,  in  France,  467. 
"  "  Ireland,  699. 

•«  Wirtemberg,  307. 

"  "  Belgium,  589. 

11  "  Russia,  626. 

Agricultural  education,  467. 

colonies,  487,  557. 

Agronomic  institute  at  Versailles,  470. 
Alfort,  veterinary  school  at,  472. 
Alphabet,  how  taught,  51. 
Amusement,  taste  and  habit  of,  cultivated,  494. 
Annaburg,  military  orphan  school  at,  115. 
Annunire  des  deux  mondes,  extracts  from,  406. 
Anthropology,  361. 
Apparatus,  for  primary  schools,  267. 
"   polytechnic,  163,  336. 
"   agricultural,  467,  473,  336. 
"  "  veterinary,  472. 

Apprentices,  house  or  family  for,  410,  412. 

schools,  590. 

Architecture,  study  of,  164,486. 
Arithmetic,  how  taught,  60,  63,  130,  137,  617. 
Arts,  schools  of,  in  Prussia,  155,  159. 
"          •«      "    "   Berlin,  159. 
"          "      "    "    Vienna,  335. 
"          "      "    "    France,  406. 

"      "    "   England,  734. 
Ashley,  Lord,  511. 

Assoc'ii.tion  of  teachers,  179,  298,  364,  425,  592. 
Attendance,  law  respecting,  in  Prussia,  95, 121. 

Baden,  294. 

"  "  "  Saxony,  266. 

"  "  "  Bavaria,  313. 

"  "  "  Switzerland,  342. 

Atchnm  union  workhouse  school,  711. 
Athenaum  in  Belgium,  587. 
AUSTRIA,  325. 

System  of  public  instruction,  325. 
popular  schools,  325. 
upper  schools,  326. 
commercial  academies,  326. 
high  schools  for  girls,  326. 
gymnasia,  326. 
lyceum,  326. 
university,  326. 
inspection,  329. 

Regulations  respecting  teachers,  331. 
System  of  normal  schools,  333. 
Polytechnic  institute  at  Vienna,  335. 
Statistics  of  elementary  schools,  338. 
"        secondary  schools,  339. 

superior,  339. 
"        academies  of  science,  340. 

Bache,  A.  D.,  Report  on  Education  in  Europe,  3. 
"       "   "      extracts  from,  81,  85,  117,  139,  122, 
273,  457,  599. 


BADEN,  293. 

School  authorities,  293. 

System  of  primary  schools,  293. 

Educational  statistics  of  Baden.  293. 

school  attendance,  294. 
"         internal  organization,  294. 
"         plan  of  instruction,  296. 

Evening  classes,  297. 

Sunday  classes,  297. 

Industrial  instruction,  297. 

Education  of  children  in  factories,  297. 

Teachers'  conferences,  298. 

Normal  seminary  at  Carlsruhe,  300. 
Bamberg,  normal  school  at,  314. 
Basedow,  25. 

Battersea,  training  college  at,  823. 
BAVARIA,  314. 

System  of  primary  schools,  313. 

Normal  seminary  at  Bamburg,  314. 

Plan  of  seminary  by  Jacob!,  314. 

Educational  statistics,  315. 

Mr.  Kay's  estimate  of  public  schools.  316. 

Dr.  Grazer's  system  of  instruction,  319. 

Common  school  at  Bayreuth,  320. 
Bayreuth,  Dr.  Grazer's  method  at,  319. 
Beckendorf  on  self-education,  254. 
BELGIUM,  583. 

History  of  public  instruction,  583. 

Outline  of  system  adopted  in  1842,  585 

Primary  schools,  586. 

Secondary,  537. 

Superior,  588. 

Special  and  industrial,  588. 

Industrial  education,  588. 

Normal  instruction,  591. 

Teachers'  conferences,  592. 

Normal  school,  593 

Reform  school  at  Ruysselede,  555. 
Bell,  Andrew,  system  of  schools,  727. 
Benefit  of  clergy,  722. 

Berlin,  schools  of,  118,  124,  127,  142,  148,  233. 
Berne,  association  of  teachers  of,  364. 
Bernhardt,  teachers'  conference  by,  243. 
Bible  in  Prussian  schools,  53,  73. 
Black-book,  ]35. 

Blockman  college  at  Dresden,  280. 
Boarding  round,  168. 
Books,  93,  110,  689,  403. 
Borough  Road  normal  school,  761. 
Brevet  de  capacite,  423. 
British  and  Foreign  School  Society,  761. 
Brougham,  Henry  (Lord,)  educational  services,  735. 

extracts  from,  754,  737 
Brothers,  institute  of,  at  Horn,  491,  501,  524. 

"        of  the  Christian  doctrine,  430 
Briihl,  normal  school  at,  207. 
Burgh  school  in  Scotland,  669. 
Burgher  school,  definition  of,  92. 
"  "       in  Berlin,  123. 

"  "        "  Halle,  112 


PUBLIC  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE. 


423 


Burgher  school  in  Leipsir,  273. 
Bursary  or  gratuity  to  teachers,  421,  618. 

Campe,  25. 

Carlsruhe,  normal  school  at,  300. 

Carter,  Rev.  T .,  remarks  on  young  criminals,  508. 

Curved  wood  work,  school  for,  410. 

Cathedral  schools,  721. 

Catholic  church  and  schools,  17,  75,  183,  206. 

"      cantons  in  Switzerland,  343. 
Central  society  of  education.  731. 
Central  school  of  arts  in  Paris.  408,  463. 
Certificate  to  pupils  leaving  school,  93. 

"  teachers  in  Prussia,  166,  188. 
"          "        "  Saxony,  263. 

France,  423. 
England,  753. 

Chalmers,  Dr.,  on  parochial  schools  of  Scotland,  658 
Chemistry,  459,  460. 
Chester,  training  college  at,  855. 
Children,  personal  appearance,  75,  105,  109. 

"         rich  and  poor  in  same  school,  105,  109. 
"         catholics  and  protestants,  343,  428. 
Christian  Brothers.  435,  420. 

"        knowledge  society,  729. 
Christmas  at  a  reform  school,  522. 
City  Trade  School  at  Berlin,  155. 
Classical  instruction,  156,  281,  383. 
Classification  in  schools,  60,  103,  107. 
Clay,  Rev.  J.,  on  crime.  &c.,  515. 
Cloister  schools,  19,  279. 
Coleman,  H.,  extracts  from,  475,548. 
Coleridge,  Derwent,  806. 
Collective  teaching.  775. 
College  in  French  system.  383,  400. 

training.    See  Training  College, 
Comenius,  20. 
Commercial  school,  337. 
Committee.     See  School  Committee. 
Committee  of  council  on  education,  739. 
Common  as  applied  to  school,  401. 
Composition,  how  taught,  56. 
Compulsory  school  attendance,  21,  95, 121,  342. 
Concours,  nature  of,  392. 

Conference  of  teachers  in  Prussia,  167,  169,  243. 
"  Baden,  298. 
"  France,  425. 
"          "        "  Belgium,  592. 
"         respecting  reformatory  schools,  497. 
Conversation,  exercises  in,  50,  60,  66. 
Conservatory  of  arts  in  Paris,  467,  407. 
Correction,  house  of,  492. 
Courses  of  study,  49,  92,  115,  119,  126,  127,  140. 

15-2.  156. 

Courteilles.  Viscount,  labors  at  Mettray,  534. 
Cousin,  extracts  from,  382,  414,  598. 
"       on  Prussian  schools,  382. 
"        "  Holland,  597. 
•'         "  normal  schools,  414. 
Cramming  system  discarded,  270. 
Crime,  juvenile,  732. 
Cuvier  on  schools  of  Holland,  597. 

Demetz,  founder  of  Mettray  reform  school,  493. 
DENMARK,  619. 

Outline  of  system,  620. 

Iceland,  620. 

Denzel,  teachers'  manual  by,  303. 
Diaconissen  Anstalt  at  Kaiserswerth,  236. 
Dick's  bequest,  663. 

Didactic,  or  art  of  teaching,  222,  843,  851. 
Diesterweg,  Dr.,  127. 
Dijon,  normal  school  at,  447. 
Diocesan  schools  in  England,  855,  876. 
Diploma  to  teachers,  173,  188,  263. 
Discipline  in  polytechnic  schools,  461. 
normal  schools.  449,  455. 
Dismission  of  a  teacher,  265. 
Domergue  on  primary  schools,  401. 
Dorothean  Higher  City  School  in  Berlin,  124. 
Drawing,  how  taught,"  59,  06,  51, 154,  320,  460. 


Dresden,  schools  in,  261,  268,  272,  278. 

Dublin,  normal  schools  at,  693. 

Ducpetiaux,  E ;  report  on  reform  schools,  496. 

extracts  from,  517, 532  549,  557. 
Dunmanway,  model  agricultural  school,  709. 
Dupin,  Charles,  educational  map  of  France,  401. 
Dwelling-house  for  teacher,  167,  259,  652,  394. 

Ecclesiastical  authority  as  to  schools,  183,  327. 
Edinburgh,  normal  schools  at,  £61, 671. 
Eisleben,  normal  seminary  of,  218. 
Elberfeld,  schools  in,  97. 
Elementary  schools,  92. 
Employment  of  young  children,  97, 226,297. 
Encouragements  to  pupils,  112. 
Endowed  schools,  105,  279,  668,  723,  736. 
ENGLAND,  721. 

History  of  public  elementary  schools,  721. 

Cloister  and  cathedral  schoo'ls,  721. 

Benefit  of  clergy  to  those  who  could  read,  722. 

Grammar  and  free  schools,  723. 

Amount  of  educational  endowments,  724. 

Voluntary  associations  to  promote  schools,  725. 

Sunday  schools,  726. 

Monitorial  system,  727. 

Joseph  Lancaster.  728. 

Andrew  Bell,  727. 

British  and  Foreign  School  Society,  728. 

National  society,  729. 

Society  for  promoting  Christian  knowledge,  729. 

Religions  tract  society,  729. 

School  for  adults,  729. 

Even  ing  schools,  729. 

Infant  schools,  730. 

Mechanics'  institution,  730. 

Society  for  diffusion  of  useful  knowledge,  731. 

Central  society  of  education,  731. 

Ragged  school  union,  731. 

Philanthropic  society's  reform  school,  732. 

Schools  for  pauper  children,  733. 

Education  of  children  in  factories,  746. 

Schools  of  industry,  733. 

Schools  of  design,  734. 

Lancashire  public  school  society,  734. 

National  public  school  association,  734. 

Parliamentary  action  in  behalf  of  schools,  735. 

Action  of  Committee  of  Privy  Council,  740. 

Remarks  of  T.  B.  Macaulay,  747. 
Thomas  Carlyle,  750. 

History  and  condition  of  normal  schools,  751. 

Examination  papers  on  school  management  and 
art  of  teach  ing.  757. 

Normal  school  of  British  and  Foreign  School  So- 
ciety, 761. 

Normal  department  for  young  men,  763. 

Course  of  conversational  reading,  775. 

Questions  to  test  a  school,  777. 

Model  school,  779. 

Female  department  of  normal  school,  780. 

Hints  to  candidates  for  admission,  784. 

Normal  and  model  schools  of  the  Home  and  In- 
fant School  Society,  787. 

Syllabus  of  lectures  on  education,  800. 

St.  Mark's  college,  or  training  school,  805. 

Battersea  normal  school,  823. 

Chester  diocesan  training  college,  855. 

Normal  schools  for  female  teachers,  875. 

Lectures  on  the  principles  of  education,  877. 
"  "      practice  of  education,  878. 

Kneller  Hall  training  school,  879. 

Conference  respecting  reform  schools,  497. 

Philanthropic  soc.  farm  school  at  Red  Hill,  573. 
Engineers,  schools  for,  461,  588. 
English  language,  837. 
"      literature,  837. 
Esslingen,  normal  school  at,  310. 
Evening  schools,  297,  685,  729. 
Examination,  public,  271. 

oral,  460. 

"  by  written  questions,  231. 

"          of  teachers  m  Prussia,  230. 


424 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


Examination  of  teachers  in  Saxony,  264,  270. 

"  "        "  France,  423. 

"  "        "  Holliind,  601. 

"  for  universities,  143, 145. 

Example,  influence  of,  in  teachers,  253. 
Exhibition  for  poor  scholars,  422. 

Factory  children  in  Prussia,  96. 
"  "         "  Baden,  297. 

"  "          "  England,  746. 

Family  arrangement  at  reform  schools,  545. 
Farm  schools  for  young  criminals,  487. 
Febinger,  31. 

Fees,  or  tuition,  176,  596,  509.  658,  746. 
Felbiger,  25. 
Felleuberg's  institute  at  Hofwyl,  351. 

"          principles  of  education,  354. 
"          normal  course,  357. 
Female  teachers,  179,  235,  240. 

"  "   normal  schools  for,  235,  240,  404, 767. 

Fleidner,  institute  at  Kaiserswerth,  236. 
Fletcher  normal  seminary,  272. 
Foreman  in  reform  schools,  how  trained,  491,  535, 

554,  562. 

Forestry,  schools  of,  307. 
Forma!  instruction,  203. 
FRANCE,  381. 

History  of  popular  education,  381. 

Ordinances  of  national  convention,  381. 

Decrees  of  Napoleon,  381. 

Law  of  the  government  of  Louis  Phillippe,  382. 

Report  of  Victor  Cousin,  382. 

Speech  of  M.  Guizot,  387. 

Degrees  of  primary  instruction,  387. 

Local  and  state  inspection,  388. 

Professional  education  of  teachers,  389. 

Mission  of  the  teacher,  389. 

Society  of  elementary  instruction,  390. 

Outline  of  system  in  1850,  391. 

University  of  France,  39J. 

Council  of  public  instruction,  391. 

Academies,  391. 

Royal  colleges,  392. 

System  of  competion  for  professorship,  392. 

System  of  primary  instruction,  393. 

School  attendance,  393. 

Local  management,  393. 

Examination  of  Teachers,  393. 

Departmental  inspection,  394. 

Education  of  teachers,  394. 

Course  of  instruction,  395. 

Teachers'  associations,  395. 

Fund  for  relief  of  aged  teachers,  395. 

Govern  mental  prizes  to  masters,  3i)5. 

Expenditures  for  school-houses,  395, 

Schools  embraced  in  university  of  France,-396 

Primary  education  in  the  communes,  397. 

Number  of  primary  sch.  belong,  to  each  sect,  397 

Attendance  in  primary  schools,  398. 

Classes  for  adults,  and  apprentices,  899. 

Statistics  of  normal  schools,  399. 

State  of  secondary  education,  400. 

Primary  education  in  department  of  Tarn,  401. 

Institutions  for  special  instruction,  405. 

"          "    industrial  instruction,  406. 

History  of  normal  schools  in  France,  413. 

Conferences  of  teachers,  425. 

Libraries  of  teachers,  427 

Pecuniary  condition  of  teachers,  430. 

Institute  of  Christian  Brothers,  435. 

Primary  normal  school  at  Versailles,  447. 
"      "  Dijon,  449. 

Secondary  normal  school  of  Paris,  451. 

Polytechnic  school  of  France,  457. 

"          engineers,  462. 

"          roads  and  bridges,  462. 

"          mines,  462. 

Central  school  of  arts  and  manufactures,  453. 

Agricultural  education  in  France,  467. 

Model  farm  schools,  468. 

Regional  schools  of  agriculture,  469. 


National  agronomic  institute,  470. 

Veterinary  schools,  471. 

Reform  farm  schools,  474. 

Agricultural  school  at  Grignon,  475. 

"  "       "    Grand  Jouan,  485. 

Farm  schools  for  juvenile  delinquents,  487. 

Agricultural  reform  school  at  Mettray,  533. 

Horticultural  reform  school  at  Petit-Bourg,  549. 

Prison  of  La  Roquette  in  Paris,  553. 
Frank6,  educational  labors  of,  21. 
"       teachers'  class,  24. 
"       orphan-house,  21, 112. 
Frederick  William  Gymnasium,  Berlin,  148 
Free  church  of  Scotland,  669. 

"    schools,  325. 

French  language,  how  taught,  137,  142,  154. 
Freres  Chretiens,  441. 
Freyberg,  school  of  mines  at,  289. 
Funds,  must  not  diminish  school  rate  or  tax,  167. 

Gallery  lesson,  720,  801. 

Garden  for  teacher,  167. 

Gardening,  art  of,  acquired  by  teachers,  203,431,815. 

Geography,  how  taught,  68,  114,  131,  138,  6J3. 

Geometry,  how  taught,  131,  137. 

GERMANY,  17. 

History  of  education,  17. 

Parochial  schools,  18. 

Public  schools,  19. 

Martin  Luther,  19. 

Augustus  Herrman  Frankg,  21. 

Orphan-house  at  Halle,  21. 

Basedow,  25. 

Pestalozzi,  25. 

Zeller,  29. 

Centennial  birth-day  of  Pestalozzi,  30. 

Progress  of  normal  schools,  31. 

General  features  of  the  school  systems,  32. 

Table.     Normal  schools  in  Germany  in  1848,  34. 

Results  of  the  normal  school  system,  35. 

Course  of  instruction  in  primary  schools,  49. 
For  children  between  ages  of  six  and  eight,  50. 
Fjr  children  from  ten  to  twelve,  55. 
Children  from  twelve  to  fourteen,  57. 

Extracts  from  report  of  Hon.  H.  Mann,  60. 

Testimony  of  Joseph  Kay,  Esq.,  as  to  the  practi 
cal  working  of  the  Prim.  Sch.  of  Germany,  74 
Glasnevin,  agricultural  school  at,  683. 
Government,  educational  duty  of,  76,  387, 747, 750. 
Graded  schools,  102. 
Grammar,  how  taught,  54,  56,  59,  65. 
Grand  Jouan,  agricultural  school  at,  485. 
Grazer,  system  of  instruction  of,  319. 
GREECE,  633. 

Outline  of  system,  and  statistics  in  1852,  633. 
Greek  church,  628. 
Grignon,  agricultural  school  at,  475. 
Guizot,  plan  of  schools  for  France,  387. 

"      extracts  from,  387. 
Gymnasium,  in  Prussia,  105,  139. 
"  "  Saxony,  279. 

"  Austria,  326. 
,  Gymnastics,  830. 

Hague,  primary  school  at,  609. 
Halle,  orphan -house  at,  2-1,  113. 

"      burgher  school  at,  112. 
HAMBURGH,  reform  school  at,  517. 
Hamilton,  Sir  William,  extract  from,  91,  382- 
Harnisch,  method  of  teaching  reading,  114. 

"        plan  of  studies,  115. 
Hebrew  schools,  311,  631 
Hecker,  24,  31. 

Hermann,  seminary  for  classic  teachers,  259. 
HESSE  CASSKL,  311. 
Hickson,  W.  E.    German  nationality,  T. 

"  "        schools  in  Holland,  24, 597. 

Higher  burgher  school,  124,  127,  135. 
Hill,  M.  D.,  on  juvenile  crime,  498. 
Hitchcock,  E.,  Report  on  agricultural  schools, 703. 
"  extract*  from,  469,  703. 


PUBLIC  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE. 


425 


ITofwyl,  Fellenberg's  establishment  at,  351. 
Huhenheim,  agricultural  institute  at,  307. 
HOLLAND,  595. 

History  of  primary  instruction,  595. 

Outline  of  system.     School  inspection,  595. 

Regulations  as  to  examination  of  teachers,  601. 

"     school  inspectors,  003. 
"  "     primary  schools,  605. 

Regulations  respecting  religious  instruction,  606. 

Table.     Primary  education  in  1846,  608. 

Primary  school  at  the  Hague,  609. 

"         normal  school  at  Harlaem,  617. 
Home  and  colonial  infant  school  society,  721,  746. 
Horn,  reform  school  at,  517. 
Horology,  practical  school  of,  410. 

ICELAND,  family  instruction,  620. 
Iferten.     See  Yrerdiin. 
Ignorance  and  crime,  749. 
Indigent  children,  487. 
Induction,  methods  of,  117, 128. 
Industry,  school  of,  733. 

Industrial  instruction,  in  normal  schools,  187,  367. 
primary  schools,  297,  687. 
"  pauper  schools,  882. 

"  reform  schools,  487. 

"  special  schools,  406. 

Infant  schools,  730. 
Inspection  of  schools  in  Austria,  327,  329. 

Baden,  293. 

"        "  England,  742. 

"        "  France,  388,  394. 

"        "  Holland,  596, 603. 

"  Ireland,  689. 

Saxony,  258. 
Spain,  649. 

"        "  Switzerland,  347. 

"  Wirtemberg,  302. 

Institute  of  arts  at  Berlin,  159. 

"        "  agriculture  at  Hohenheim,  307. 
Instruction,  methods  of,  43, 50, 60, 91, 110, 113. 128. 
Intellectual  education,  836. 
Ionian  Islands,  schools  in,  634. 
IRELAND,  675. 

History  of  national  education,  675. 
Legislation  of  Henry  VIII.,  676. 
Protestant  charter  schools,  676. 
Kildare-place  society,  677. 
Commissioners  of  English  Parliament,  677. 
"  National  Education,  677. 

Results  of  the  system,  678. 
Training  department  and  model  schools,  693. 
Agricultural  education,  699. 
Professorships  in  Queen's  Colleges,  699. 
Agricultural  department  in  national  system,  700. 
Model  farm  at  Glasnevin,  703. 
List  of  lectures  at  Glasnevin,  707. 
National  school  at  Lame,  707. 
Dun  man  way  model  school,  709. 
Workhouse  agricultural  school,  710. 
Operations  of  similar  schools  in  England,  710. 
Queen's  Colleges  and  University,  711. 
Irregular  attendance,  266. 
ITALY,  635. 

System  in  Lombard v  and  Venice,  635. 
"         "  Sardinia,  640. 
"        "  Tuscany,  643. 
"        "   Rome,  644. 
"        "    Naples,  645. 
Itinerant  schools  in  Norway,  623. 

Jacobi,  plan  of  normal  school  by,  314. 

Julius,  Dr.,  Prussian  schools  as  they  were,  241. 

Journals  of  education,  46,  182,  390. 

Journal  of  Education,  London,  extract  from,  401. 

Jury  of  exnmination,  460. 

Juvenile  crime,  origin  of,  403. 

"      cost  of,  501,  503. 
"        criminals,  school  for  in  Belgium,  496, 557. 

"        France,  492. 
M  "        "        Wirtemberg,  489. 


Juvenile  criminals,  school  for,  in  Hamburgh,  490. 
"  "  "        "        England,  497. 

"        "        Switzerland,  487 
"  "        conference  respecting,  497. 

Kaiserswerth,  school  for  nurses,  governesses,  236 
Kay,  Joseph,  on  education  of  |>eople,  94. 

extracts  from,  74,  94,  222,  226,  261, 

305.  315,  341,  367,  441. 
Kay,  James  Phillips.    See  Sfiuttlewortli. 
Kneller  Hall,  879. 
Kindermann,  31. 

Kirk  session,  nature  and  power  of,  655. 
Kirkpatrick,  Dr.,  on  agricultural  schools,  700, 
Knighton,  W.,  lectures  on  teaching  by,  877. 
Koenigsberg,  seminary  for  teachers  at,  83. 
Kribben,  or  nursery  schools,  730. 
Kruitzlingen,  normal  school  at,  367. 
Kussnacht,  normal  school  at,  373. 

Lalor,  author  of  prize  essay,  731. 
Lamartine,  on  duty  of  educated  men,  40A- 
Lancashire  public  school  association,  734. 
Lancaster,  Joseph,  727. 
j  Lancasterian  system,  in  England,  728. 
"  "  Denmark,  620. 

"  "  Holland,  595,  610. 

"  "  Prussia.  106. 

•'  Spain,  647. 

Landed  proprietors,  duties  to  poor  children,  106 
Lap-bag,  for  needlework,  780. 
La  Roquette,  prison  of,  555. 
Lame,  agricultural  school  at,  707. 
Lasalle,  Abbe  de,  educational  labors  of,  435. 
Lastadie,  normal  school  at,  192, 
Lateran,  council  of,  18. 
Latin,  how  taught,  137,  285  813. 
Lausanne,  normal  school  at,  378. 
Learned  societies,  405. 
Liberty  of  instruction,  584. 
Libraries  for  teachers,  427. 
Lierre,  normal  school  at,  593. 
Liepsic,  burgher  school  in,  273 

real  school.  273. 

"        seminary  for  classic  teachers,  259. 
Locke,  John,  25. 
Lombardy,  schools  in,  635. 
Lucerne,  normal  school  nt,  380. 
Luther,  Martin,  educational  labors  of,  19. 
"      letter  to  elector  of  Saxony,  19. 
"      address  in  behalf  of  Christian  schools,  19 
Lyceum,  in  Austria,  326. 
France,  383. 

Macauley,  T.  B.  on  public  schools,  747. 

Madras  s'ystem,  of  Dr.  Bell,  727. 

Malthus,  on  state  of  schools  in  England,  726. 

Manufactures,  schools  of,  406. 

Management  clauses,  744. 

Manners  of  school  children,  305,  77. 

Mann,  Horace,  report  on  schools  of  Europe,  4. 

"      extracts  from,  39,  60,  528. 
Manufacturing  districts,  96, 266,  297,  325. 
Marienweider,  normal  school  for  females  at,  238. 
Material  instruction,  203. 
Map-drawing.  69,  613. 
Maynooth,  713. 

Me  Neil,  Sir  John,  on  ngricultural  schools,  70L 
Mechanics,  science  of,  866. 
Mechanics'  Institutions,  730. 
Mecklenberg,  duchy  of,  311. 
Mental  arithmetic, '64. 
Methodick,  206. 

Mercantile  and  commercial  schools,  335,  856. 
Methods  oi  teaching  left  with  teacher,  93,  110. 
Mettray,  reform  school  at,  533. 
Middle  schools,  91. 
Milne's  Free  School,  6C8. 
Mines,  schools  of,  289,  462.  410. 
Minutes  of  committee  of  council  on  education,  739 
Military  schools,  590,  631. 


426 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


Military  orphan  schools,  115,  532. 
Mixed  schools,  79,  98,  401. 
Model  farm  school,  468,  532. 

"      schools,  annexed  to  normal  schools,  165. 
Models  for  drawing,  163. 
Monasteries,  schools  in,  279,  721. 
Monitorial  system,  106,  401,  610. 
Monitors,  106,  175,  343. 
Moral  Education,  355. 
More,  Sir  Thomas,  extract  from,  725. 
Mother  school  of  Christian  Brothers,  352 
Motives  to  study,  145. 
Mnlhauser's  system  of  writing,  838. 
Munich,  317. 

Music,  74,  126,  131,  211,  228,  842. 
Mutual  instruction,  107,  G10,  729. 

Nassau,  duchy  of,  311. 

National  society,  in  England,  729. 

Natural  history,  how  taught,  131,  866. 

Nature,  knowledge  of,  70, 137. 

Naval  schools,  405,  625. 

Navigation,  589,  625. 

Needle  work  in  school,  780,  590. 

"          "     taught  hy  teachers'  wives,  432. 
Neufchatel,  343,  349. 
New  Lanark,  infant  school  at,  730. 
Nichols,  G.,  extracts  from,  598. 
Non-attendance  at  school,  403. 
Normal  schools,  definition  of,  31,  333 

remarks  on  by  C.  E.  Stowe,  35. 
"  A.  D.  Bache,  39. 

"  H.  Mann.  39. 

"  E.  Ryerson,  45. 

"  L.  Stephens,  46. 

"  Joseph  Kay,  183,  232. 

Shuttleworth,  826. 
V.  Cousin,  414. 
M.  Guizot,  388. 
Lord  Brougham,  751. 
history  of,  20,  30,  413,  661,  751. 
number  and  condition  of, — 
in  Prussia,  165,  172,  185,  189,  190. 
Saxon  v,  259,  261. 
Wirtemberg,  310,  305. 
Austria,  333 

Switzerland,  343,  357,  366,  373, 
Bavaria,  313. 
Baden,  300. 
Hesse  Cassel,  312. 
France,  399,  421,  431,  447,  451. 
Spain,  647. 
Portugal,  646. 
Russia.  627. 


ielgium.  591. 
lolland,  617,844. 


Ho 

Denmark,  620. 
Greece,  634. 
England.  751. 
Ireland,  693. 
Scotland,  661,  671. 
Germany  34. 

different  grades  of,  189.  415. 
for  female  teachers,  235, 404,  594, 875. 
catholic  teachers,  207. 
protestant  teachers,  317,  197. 
teachers  of  primary  schools,  191. 
"  secondary  schools,  451. 

259,  264. 

pauper  children,  879. 
"  reform    schools,    490. 

524,  535. 

"  agricultural  do.,  700. 

city  schools,  446,  233 
rural  districts,  415,  445 
description  of  particular, — 
in  Prussia.  Lastadie,  192. 
"         "         Pyritz,  194. 

Potsdam,  197. 
"         "         Bruhl,  207. 
"        "        Eisleben,  218. 


Normal  schools  in  Prussia,  Weissenfels,  219. 
"          "         "        "        Berlin,  233. 

Kuiserswerth,  236. 
"          "         "  Saxony.  Leipsic,  259. 
"          "         "        "        Dresden,  261. 
"          "         "  Baden.  Carlsruhe,  300. 
"  "         "  Wirtemberg.  Esslingen,  310. 

"          "         "  Hesse  Cassel.  Schiuchtern,  312. 
"          "         "  Bavaria.  Bamberg,  314. 

"         "          "        Schwubaeh,  314. 
"          "         "  Austria.  Vienna,  333. 
"          "         "  Switzerland.  Hofwyl,  357. 
"          "         "  "  Kruitzlingen,  367. 

"          "         "  "  Zurich,  372. 

"          "         "  Switzerland.     Kussnuclit,  373. 
"          "  "  Lausanne,  378. 

"          "  "  Lucerne,  380. 

"          "         France.    Paris,  45] . 
"          "  "          Versailles,  447. 

Dijon,  449. 

"         Belgium.     Lierre,  593. 
"          "         Holland.     Harlaem,  617. 
"          "         Scotland.     Edinburgh,  661,  671. 

"         Ireland.     Dublin,  693. 
"          "         England.    Boroughroad,  Lon.761. 
"          "  "          Chester,  855. 

"          Chelsea,  805. 
"          "  "          Battersen,  833. 

«'          "  "          Whiteland,  875 

"          Kneller  Hall,  879. 
"          "  administration  and  instruction  of, — 
"          "  direction  of,  197, 219, 233, 262,  373, 617. 

"  buildings  and  fixtures,  197,  207,  367. 
"          "  domestic  arrangements,  225,  227,  233, 

262,  367,  202,  421,  447,  449. 
"          "  director,  or  principal  of,  416. 
"          "  discipline  of,  449,  455,  618. 
"          "  plan  of  study,  416. 
"          "  expenses,  &c.,  197,  229,  424,  421. 
"          "  number  of  teachers,  198.  217,  261,  305. 
"          "        "       of  pupils,  198,  208,  261. 
"          "  age  of  admission,  422,  810. 
"          "  conditions  of  admission,  165,  185,  199, 

219,  226,  232,  261,  303,  617,  694. 
"  pledge  to  teach,  422. 

"          "  course  and  subjects  of  study,  186,  192, 

218,  272,  300,  306,  312,  372,  376,  378. 

"          "  length  of  course,  166,  184,  220,  225, 

260,  261,  333,  617. 
"          "  physical,  309,  225. 
"          "  intellectual,  186,  201,  213. 
"          "  moral  and  religious,  196,  211,  220,  225 

234. 

"          "  industrial,  187,  814,  861,  888. 
"          "  science  of  teaching,  229,  232,  234,  617. 
"          "  art  of  teaching,  204,  216,  234,  262,  617. 
"          "  musical  education,  228,  280. 
"          "  examination  for  diploma.  166, 188,  204. 

230,  262,  423. 

"          "  privileges  of  graduates,  189. 
«'          "  general  results  of,  35,  39,  755. 
NORWAY,  623. 

Outline  of  system  of  public  education,  623. 
Norwood,  industrial  school  for  paupers,  733. 
Novitiate  of  the  Christian  Brothers,  444. 
Nursery  schools,  730. 
Nurses,  training  of,  236. 

Oberlin,  J.  J.,  author  of  infant  schools,  730. 

Observation,  how  cultivated,  50,  206. 

Oral  instruction,  761,  612. 

Order  of  exercises  in  school.     See  Time  Table. 

Organization   of   public    schools.     See   Prussia, 

France,  Sec. 
Orphans,  number  of,  increased  by  war,  487. 

"        of  teachers  provided  for,  181. 

"        house  for  at  Halle.  21,  112. 

"  "       "     "  Annaburg,  115. 

Osborn,  Rev.  W.  C.,  on  cost  of  crime,  502. 
Outline  maps.  69,  613. 
Overberg,  Bernard,  labors  of,  247. 


PUBLIC  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE. 


427 


Overseers  of  schools  in  Austria,  330. 

Parents,  doties  of,  to  schools,  in  Prussia,  74,  75. 
"  Bavaria,  313. 
"  Saxony,  266. 

"          **        **          "        **  France,  393. 
«          "        "          "        "  Switzerland,  342. 
Paris,  polytechnic  school,  457. 
"      normal  school  at,  451. 
"      school  of  arts,  463. 
Parish  or  parochial  schools,  346,  651. 
Parkhurst,  prison  for  juvenile  criminals,  732. 
Patronage  society,  for  discharged  criminals,  555. 
Pauperism  and  education,  350,  879. 
Pauper  children,  number  of,  733,  879. 

schools  for,  733. 
"  "        teachers  for,  885. 

Pedagogy,  183,  22-2. 
Pecuniary  condition  of  teacher,  430. 
Pennmanship,  see  Writing. 
?ensions  for  disabled  teachers,  181,402. 
•eriodicals,  educational,  46,  183,  390. 
Pestalozzi,  educational  principles  of,  25. 
"        system  of  in  Prussia,  83. 
"        orphan-house  at  Neuhof,  487. 
"        contrasted  with  Basedow,  26. 
Petit-Bourg,  reform  school  at,  549. 
Philanthopinum  of  Basedow,  25. 
Philanthopic  society,  578, 

"  "        reform  school  of,  578 

Phonic  method,  25,  613,  836. 
Physical  education,  138,  144. 
Physiology,  830,  361. 
Pietists,  25. 

Piety  of  teachers,  how  shown,  194. 
Play-ground,  106,  274. 
Polytechnic  school  at  Berlin,  159. 
"        "  Vienna,  335. 

"  Paris,  457. 

Poor  schools,  in  Holland,  609. 
PORTUGAL,  646. 
PoUdam,  higher  burgher  school  at,  135. 

normal  school,  197. 
"          orphan-house,  532. 
Pounds,  John,  author  of  ragged  schools,  731. 
Practical  instruction.  203. 
Practice,  or  model  schools,  165,  204,  216. 
Preparatory  normal  school,  226. 
Prevention,  in  school  government,  211. 
Preventive  schools,  conference  respecting,  468. 
Primary  school  in  Saxony,  269. 
Primary  schools.    See  Prussia,  France,  SfC. 

"  gradation  of,  91,  387,  609. 
"          "  course  of  instruction  in  Germany,  49 
"          "      "       "          "  "Holland,  609 

tt          "       "       "          "          •'  Austria,  327 
rt          a       "       *«          "          "  Bavaria,  313 
"       "       "          "          "  France,  401. 
*'          "      "       u          "          "Saxony,  258 
"      "       "          «          "Baden,  296. 
"          "  inspection  of.    See  Inspection. 
"          "  teachers  of.    See  Teachers. 
Prince  schools,  279. 
Princen's  reading  board,  612. 
Private  schools,  103. 
Pro-seminaries,  226. 

PRUSSIA,  description  of  primary  instruction,  81. 
History  of  primary  instruction,  81. 
Outline  of  system,  85. 
Statistics  of  primary  education  in  1848,  88. 
Remarks  on  progress  of  primary  Schools,  89. 
Subjects  and  methods  of  instruction,  91. 
Results,  according  to  Mr.  Kay,  94. 
"          "  Mr  Mann,  39. 
"          "  Mr.  Stephens,  46. 
Education  of  young  children,  universal,  94. 
School  attendance.  95. 
Children  employed  in  factories,  96. 
Voluntary  system  prior  to  1819,  97. 
Schools  whe're  the  people  are  of  one  faith,  98. 
"       different  do.  98 


'RUSSIA,  Mixed  schools,  99. 

Duties  of  school  committee,  99. 

Schools  in  large  towns  and  cities,  101. 

Advantages  of  large  schools,  102. 

School-houses,  103. 

Superior  primary  schools,  105. 

Real  schools,  gymnasia,  endowed  schools,  105. 

Large  landed  proprietors,  106. 

Lancasterian  method,  106. 

Paid  monitors  or  assistants,  107. 

Text-books,  109. 

Suggestive  character  of  the  methods,  110. 

Interest  of  children  in  their  studies,  111. 

Burgher  school  at  Halle,  112. 

Military  orphan-house  at  Annaburg,  115. 

Public  schools  of  Berlin,  118. 

Elementary  schools.  118. 

Burgher  schools,  123. 

Dorothean  higher  city  school  of  Berlin,  124. 

Model  school  of  teachers'  seminary,  127. 

Seminary  school  at  Weissenfels,  123. 

Higher  burgher  school  of  Potsdam,  135. 

Secondary  Instruction  in  Prussia,  139. 

Frederick  William  Gymnasium  of  Berlin,  148 

Royal  real  school,  15-J. 

City  trade  school,  155. 

Institute  of  Arts,  159. 

Legal  provision  respecting  teachers,  165. 

Testimony  of  Mr.  Kay,  169. 

Social  condition,  170. 

Educational  advantages,  172. 

Schools  preparatory  to  normal  schools,  41,  171. 

Examination  on  entering,  172. 

Teachers  are  public  officers  174. 

Salaries  fixed,  and  payment  certain,  176. 

Female  teachers,  178. 

Teachers'  conferences,  179. 

Pensions  to  old  and  invalid  teachers,  181. 

Widows  and  orphans  of  deceased  teachers,  182. 

Educational  periodicals,  182. 

Teachers  seminary,  or  normal  colleges,  183. 

Conditions  and  examinations  for  entering,  41,185. 

Intellectual  training  of  a  seminary,  186. 

Industrial  training,  187. 

Diploma,  173, 188. 

Location  of  normal  schools  in  1846, 190. 

Small  normal  schools  of  Lastadie,  191. 

Small  normal  school  of  Pyritz.  194. 

Normal  school  of  Potsdam,  197. 

Normal  schools  at  Bruhl,  207. 

Normal  seminary  in  Eisleben,  218. 

Seminary  for  teachers  at  Weissenfels,  219. 

Seminary  for  teachers  of  city,  at  Berlin,  233. 

Normal  schools  for  female  teachers,  235. 

Seminary  at  Marienweider,  236. 

Diaconissen  Anstalt,  at  Kaisersworth,  236. 

Prussian  schools,  a  few  years  ago,  241. 

School  counselor,  Dinter,  242. 

Journal  of  a  conference  of  teachers,  243. 

School  counselor,  Bernhardt,  243. 

Bernard  Overberg,  246. 

C.  B.  Zeller— the  influence  of  example,  253. 

Self-examination— by  Beckendon,  254. 
Publicity  of  public  schools,  75. 
Public  schools,  rich  and  poor  attend,  75,  316. 

"          "        protestant  and  catholic,  63,  317. 
Punishments,  in  reform  schools,  512,  537,  552. 
Pupil  teachers,  753. 
Pyritz,  normal  school  at,  194. 

Qualifications  required  in  a  teacher  in  Prussia,  165. 

"         •«        «•    Austria,  331. 

"  "          "        "    Saxony,  259. 

M          "        "    Ireland,  693. 

"          "        "    France,  423. 

Queen's  College  and  University  in  Ireland,  7i3. 

"        scholars,  in  England,  753. 
Questions  for  self-examination  by  teachers,  254. 
"          "   examiners  in  schools,  777. 
"          "  on  school  management  and  art  of 
teachins,757. 


428 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


Ragged  schools,  origin  of,  731. 
Raikes,  Robert,  and  Sunday  schools,  726. 
Rambalt,  25. 

Rate,  or  tax  for  schools,  734. 
Ratich,  labors  of,  20. 
Rauhen-bnus,  at  Horn,  490,  517. 
Raumer,  F.,  extracts  from,  635. 
Reading,  how  taught,  50,  51,  55,  61,  114,  131,  612. 
Realia,  91,  321. 
Real  instruction,  56,  59. 
Real  schools  at  Berlin,  152. 
"        "        "  Leipsic,  277. 
"        "        "  Vienna,  335. 
Real  objects,  lessons  on,  70. 
Red  Hill,  reform  school  ut,  578. 
Reformation,  influence  of,  18. 
Reform  schools  for  young  criminals  487,  559. 
"        public  or  private,  557. 

buildings,  493,  5J8,  539,  549,  558. 
farm,  559,  561. 

"        family  arrangement,  545,  581. 
officers,  519,  535,  550,  562. 
foremen,  491,  535,  562,  554. 
"         conditions  of  admission,  558,  560. 
"        number,  519,  5'J6,  555,  560. 
"        nge,  520,  561. 
"        previous  life,  561,  557. 
"        classification,  518,  550,  564. 
"        dress,  540,  563. 
"         instruction,  519,  538,  566. 
"        employments,  535,  540,  558,  571. 

daily  routine,  521,  544,  564. 
"        amusements,  522. 

food,  519,  562. 
"        infirmary,  544,  563. 
"        dormitories,  539,  549,  563. 
"        punishment,  541,  552,  569. 
reward,  495,  530,  553,  568. 
"        meetings  of  pupils  and  officers,  569. 
"        discharge,  560. 
"        cost,  501, 526,  534,  543,  565, 573. 

result,  495.  520,  530,  556,  570. 
"        aid  to  discharged  inmates,  555, 576. 
"        in  Switzerland,  487. 
"        "  VVirtemberg,  489. 

11  Hamburgh,  490,  517. 
"        "  France,  492. 
"          "        "  Belgium,  496, 557. 
"          "        "  England,  497,  578. 
Reichelen,  M.,  extracts  from,  118.     [134, 138, 145. 
Religious  instruction  in  Prussia,  53,  55,  57,  73, 124, 
"  Holland,  605,  614. 
"  Ireland,  679. 

"        denominations,  103,  183,  302. 
Regional  school  of  agriculture,  469. 
Repeaters,  in  French  seminaries,  447,  458,  466. 
Repetition  schools  in  Austria,  326. 
Rewards  in  school,  145. 
Rochow,  canon  of,  27,  31. 

Rosier,  Abbe,  founder  of  agricultural  schools,  467. 
Rousseau,  25. 

Royal  real  school  at  Berlin,  152. 
Rules,  862,  209,  211,  618. 
Rural  schools  or  colonies,  487. 
RUSSIA,  625. 

History  of  Public  Instruction,  625. 
Statistics  of  schools  in  1850,  630. 
Ruysselede,  reform  school  at,  557. 
Ryerson,  Dr.,  extracts  from,  45. 

Salaries  of  teachers,  176,  265, 302,  432. 

Salle,  Abbe  de  la.    See  JLasaUe. 

8al7,man,  25. 

Sampson,  Abbot,  721. 

Sand,  writing  in,  suggested  the  Madras  system,  727. 

Sardinia,  640. 

Savings'  society  for  teachers,  433,  444. 

SAXONY,  257. 

System  of  primary  instruction,  257. 

Institution  for  superannuated  teachers,  259. 

Statistic*  of  schot/lb,  260. 


SAXONY,  Royal  sem.  for  teachers  at  Dresden,  261. 
Examination  for  teachers1  diplomas,  262 
Protection  of  teachers'  rights,  265. 
Compulsory  attendance  at  school,  266. 
School  buildings,  267. 
Primary  schools  of  Dresden,  268. 
Saxon  Sunday  schools,  268. 
Plan  of  Sunday  school  at  Dresden,  269 
Public  examination  of  the  schools,  271. 
Fletcher  normal  seminary  nt  Dresden,  272. 
Burgher  school  at  Leipsic,  273. 
Plan  of  instruction,  275. 
Public  schools  of  Leipsic  and  Dresden,  278 
Secondary  education  in  Siixony,  279. 
Blochmann  Gymnasium  at  Dresden,  280. 
School  of  mines  at  Freyberg  289. 
Sears,  Barnas,  extracts  from,  19. 
Secondary  education,  in  Austria,  326,  339. 

"  Prussia,  139. 
"         "  Saxony,  279. 

"  "        "  Russia,  627. 

"        "  France,  400. 
"        normal  schools  at  Paris,  451. 
Sects,  cnn  unite  in  same  school  system,  75,  79,  99 

102,  343. 

Seminary  for  teachers.    See  Normal  Schools. 
Seminary  school  at  Berlin,  127. 

"         "         "     Weissenfels,  133. 
Sessional  school  in  Scotland,  655. 
Sexes,  separation  of,  in  schools,  490. 
Seydlitz,  endowment  for  schools  of  arts,  159. 
Schluchtern,  normal  school  at,  312. 
Schmidt,  method  of  drawing,  154. 
Scholars.     See  Pupils. 
School  fittings,  requisites  of,  38. 
School-houses  and  furniture  in  Austria,  329. 
"          "         "  Baden,  78. 
"  "         "  England,  742. 

"  "          "        "  France,  395. 

"          "        "  Prussia,  61,  78, 108. 
"          "        "  Ireland,  689. 
School-houses  and  furniture  in  Saxony,  267. 
School  committee,  local,  in  Prussia,  98. 
"  "  "       "  Saxony,  258. 

11  "  "       "  Baden,  293. 

"      management  757,  769,  800. 
School  regulations,  139. 
Schul-vorstand,  86.     See  School  Committee. 
Scientific  institutions,  406,  591,  626. 
SCOTLAND,  651. 

History  of  Parochial  School,  651. 
Normal  School  of  the  Church  of  Scotland,  661. 

"     School  of  Free  Church,  671. 
Shuttleworth,  Sir  James  Kay,  740,  823. 
extracts  from,  444,  367. 
Singing,     See  Music. 
Simultaneous  method,  111. 
Sisters  of  Charity,  348,  535,  548. 
Smith,  Adam,  on  parish  schools,  725. 
Social  influence  of  good  public  schools,  317,  657. 
Society  for  the  public  good,  in  Holland,  595. 
SPAIN,  647. 
Special  instruction,  schools  for,  405. 


State,  rel     on  of,  to  schools,  76,  747. 

Statistics 

'education 

in  Austria,  338. 

" 

"  Prussia,  48,  88. 

u 

"  Holland,  608. 

« 

"  Saxony,  260. 

" 

"  Baden,  291. 

«« 

"  Bavaria,  318,  315. 

• 

"  Wirtemberg,  301. 
"  Lombardy,  636. 

•• 

"  Sardinia,  640. 

« 

"  Rome,  644. 

" 

"  Naples,  645. 

M 

"  Portugal,  646. 

M 

"  Denmark,  619. 

1C 

"  Norway,  623. 

II 

"  Sweden,  622. 

II 

"  Russia,  627. 

if                   «i 

«  Greece,  633. 

PUBLIC  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE. 


429 


Statistics  of  education  in  England,  745. 
"          "        "  Ireland,  694. 
"          "        "  Scotland,  669. 

"  France,  366. 

"        "          "        "  Belgium,  583. 
Stephen.,  Prof.  L.,  extract  from,  46,  84. 
Stettin,  normal  schools  at,  31. 
Steinmetz,  24,  31. 

St.  Mark's  training  college  at  Chelsea,  805. 
Stock,  J.,  and  Sunday  schools,  726. 
Stowe,  Calvin  £.,  extracts  from,  35,  49,  527. 
Stow's  training  system  at  Glasgow, 661. 
Strasbourg,  normal  school  at,  413. 
Study  room  in  boarding-school,  450. 

"  '  table.    See  Time  Table. 
Study  out  of  school,  143. 

St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  agricultural  brothers  of,  495. 
Subjects  of  study  in  primary  schools,  Austria,  326. 

Baden,  194. 

"  "          Prussia,  92. 

"  "  "          France,  395. 

"          Holland,  205. 
•«  "  "          Saxony,  258. 

«          Switzerland,  346. 
Suggestive  methods,  110. 
Sunday  schools,  268,  438,  726. 
Superior  schools  or  colleges,  statistics  of,  260,  293, 

301,  315,  318,  339.  392. 
Supervision.    See  Inspection. 
Support  of  schools,  mode  of,  in  Holland,  596. 
'•        "        "          "          "     Austria,  325. 
"         "         "  "  "     Prussia,  176. 

"        "        «          "          "     Scotland,  658. 
SWEDEN.  621. 
Syllabus  of  lectures  on  education,  668, 877. 

SWITZERLAN3,  341. 

Outline  of  educational  institutions,  341. 

Reconcilement  of  difference  of  relig.  belief,  341. 

School  attendance  made  compulsory,  342. 

Education  of  teachers,  344. 

Manual  labor  in  normal  schools,  344. 

Vehrli's  opinions  on  the  habits  of  teachers,  345. 

Course  of  instruction  in  primary  schools,  346. 

Religious  exercises,  347. 

Local  inspection  cf  schools,  347. 

Results  of  the  education  of  the  people,  348. 

Education  of  girls  in  catholic  seminaries,  348. 

Condition  of  the  peasantry,  349. 

Pauperism  and  ignorance,  350. 

Educational  establishment  at  Hofwyl,  351. 

Emanuel  Fellenberg,  351. 

Fellenberg's  principles  of  education,  354. 

Normn!  course  for  teachers  at  Hofywl,  357. 

Berne  cantonal  society  for  teachers,  364. 

Normal  school  at  Kruitzlingen,  367. 

Educational  views  of  Vehrli,369. 

Programme — course  of  study,  372. 

Normal  school  at  Kussnacht,  Zurich,  373. 

Programme  of  studies,  376. 

Normal  school  at  Lausanne,  378. 

Normal  school  at  Lucerne,  380. 

Tarn,  report  on  schools  in  department  of,  401. 

Taxation  for  schools,  100. 

Teacher,  estimate  of,  33,  37,  452,  46,  167,  169,  599, 

809. 
"        legnl  provision  for,  33, 176,  432. 

qualifications,  36,  112, 141,  203,  259,  423. 
"        pecuniary  condition  of,  37,  23,  176,  433. 
"        civil  state  of,  33,  174, 401. 
"         employment  out  of  school,  431. 
"        saving's  box,  or  bank  for,  434. 
"        associations,  33  425. 

conferences,  298,  418,  592. 
"        retiring,  pensions  of,  33,  434. 
"        dwelling  and  garden  for,  177,  265. 

fixed  salaries  or,  177,  265. 
M        social  position,  170. 
"        seminaries  for.  190. 
"         superannuated  and  disabled,  182, 
"        widow  and  children  of,  181. 


Teacher,  sympathies  with  people,  184. 
"         professional  training  of,  36,  388. 
"         authority  of,  37. 
**        appointment  of,  100. 
Teaching,  science  of,  800,  877. 

art  of,  800,  878. 
Technical  schools,  335.  637. 
Technology,  how  taught,  136. 
Temple,  R.,  description  of  Kneller  Hall,  by,  885. 
Term,  length  of  school,  274,  294. 
Text-books  in  Prussia,  11)9,  110. 

"  Ireland,  689. 
Theological   students  must  qualify  themselves  U 

inspect  schools,  255,  327. 
Thinking  exercises  for  littie  children,  70, 113. 
Time  table  in  primary  schools,  115,  263,  614. 

burgher,  126.  133,  135,  136,  275. 
"        «         gymnasia,  142. 
"        "         Sunday  schools,  269. 
"        "          normnl  schools,  134,  214,  220,  234, 

262,  272,  300,  312,  447,  449. 
"          agricultural  schools,  308,  470,  478. 
"        "         polytechnic  schools,  459. 

"          school  of  arts,  162. 
"        "          reform  schools,  5J7,  531. 
"        "         secondary  schools.  142,  149,  287. 
"        "          real  schools,  153,  158,  277. 
"        "          school  of  mines,  289. 
Topics,  or  themes  for  composition,  775. 
Town,  or  higher  grade  of  burgher  schools,  93. 
Trade  schools,  155. 

Training  schools  for  teachers.  See  Wormed  Schoolg. 
Trivial  schools  in  Austria,  325. 
Trotzendorf,  monitorial  system  of,  20. 
Turner,  E  .  on  reform  schools,  578. 
Tuscany,  643. 

Union  workhouse  schools,  733. 
Universities,  588,  639,  638,  641,  713. 
University  of  France,  391. 
Upper  schools  in  Austria,  326. 

Vehrli,  pupil  of  Pestalozzi,  367. 

Venetian  States,  educational  statistics,  339,  636. 

Versailles,  normal  school  nt,  447. 

"        agronomic  institute  at,  470. 
Vienna,  polytechnic  institute  at,  335 
Vincent  de  Paul,  philanthropy,  420. 
Von  Turk,  532. 

Wages  of  teachers,  265,  302.  394 

Warwick  county  asylum,  515. 

Watson,  VV.,  founder  of  industrial  school,  73L 
j  Weaving,  practical  school  for,  410,  412. 
1  Weights  and  measures,  taught,  395,  615. 

Weissenfels,  seminary  for  teachers  at,  219. 
"          school  of  practice,  133. 

Whipping  in  prison,  503. 

Whitbread.  author  of  first  school  bill  for  Eng.  727. 

Wichern,  F.  H.,  teacher  of  reform  school,  517. 

Widows  of  teachers,  18J,  395. 

Willm,  extracts  from,  425.  427. 

Wimmer,  S.,  account  of  Blockman  college,  280. 

WlRTEMBERQ,  301. 

Educational  statistics,  301. 

System  of  primary  schools,  301. 

Denzel's  introduction  to  the  art  of  teaching,  303. 

Normal  seminary  at  Esslingen,  310. 

Normal  seminary  at  Nurtinge:i.  305. 

Institute  of  asricnlture  at  Hohenheim,  307. 
Woodbridge,  W.  C.,  extracts  from,  25. 
Workhouse  schools,  6S5. 
Writing,  how  taught,  52,  66,  114, 119,  613. 

Young  children,  exercises  for,  50. 

ia  factories,  95,  237,  726. 
Yverdun,  29. 

Zeller,  C.  B  .  labors  of,  29,  83,253. 

Zinzendorf,  24. 

Zurich,  normal  school  at,  376. 


430  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

REPORTS  AND  DOCUMENTS  RELATING  TO  THE  COMMON  SCHOOL 
SYSTEM  OF  CONNECTICUT.     Hartford :  Case,  Tiffany  &  Co. 

This  Volume  is  made  up  of  different  numbers  of  the  Connecticut  Common  School  Journal,  which 
contuin  separate  documents  of  permanent  value.  It  makes  a  large  quarto  volume  of  400  pages,  in 
double  columns,  and  small  type.  Price  $1.00. 

I.-DOCUMENTS  CONNECTED  WITH  THE  COMMON  SCHOOLS  OF  CONNECTICUT, 

FROM  MAY,  1838,  TO  MAY,  1842. 

REPORTS  of  the  Board  of  Commissioners  of  Common  Schools,  for  1839, 1840,  1841,  1842 
Barnard's  Report — Legislative  Document,  1838. 

"        Address  of  the  Board  of  Commissioners  of  C.  S.  to  the  People,  1838. 

"        First  Annual  Report  to  the  Board  of  C.  C.  S.,  1839;  Second  do.  for  1840;  Third  do.  for 
1841 ;  Fourth  do.  for  1842. 

"        Report  on  Education  in  other  States  and  Countries,  1840. 

4  "         Public  Schools  in  Boston,  Providence,  Lowell,  Worcester,  &c.,  1841. 

"        Address  on  School-houses  in  1839. 

"        Report  on  Public  Schools  of  Hartford,  1841. 

"        Remarks  on  the  History  and  Condition  of  the  School  Lows  of  Connecticut,  1841. 

*•        Report  on  the  Legal  Provision  respecting  the  Education  and  Enuoloyment  of  Children  in 
Factories  in  various  States  and  Countries. 

"        Letter  to  a  Committee  of  the  Legislature  on  the  Expenses  of  the  Board  of  Commissioners. 

1841. 

Reports  of  School  Visitors  in  most  of  the  Towns  in  Connecticut,  for  1840  to  1842. 
Summary  of  the  Legislation  of  the  State  respecting  Schools  from  lC47to  183Q. 
Act  to  provide  for  the  better  Supervision  of  Common  Schools,  passed  1838. 
Act  giving  additional  powers  to  School  Districts  and  School  Societies,  1839. 
Revised  Common  School  Act,  1841. 
Report  and  Act  for  repealing  the  Board  of  Commissioners,  1842. 

II.— DOCUMENTS  OR  ARTICLES  RESPECTING  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  OTHEB 

STATES  AND  COUNTRIES. 

Condition  of  Public  Education  in  Scotland,  Ireland,  England,  and  Wales,  from  various  sources. 
*'  Holland,  by  Prof.  Bache,  Cousin,  and  Cuvier. 

Prus-sia,  by  Prof.  Bache,  Cousin,  Wyse,  and  Prof.  Stowe. 
Duchy  of  Baden,  and  Nassau,  by  Prof.  James. 
Austria,  by  Prof.  Turnbull  and  Bache. 
"  "  Tuscany,  Irom  Qu.  Review. 

Switzerland,  from  Journal  of  Education,  and  Prof.  Bache. 
Bavaria  and  Hanover,  by  Hawkins. 
"  "  Saxony,  by  Prof.  Buche. 

"  Russia,  by  Prof.  Stowe. 

France,  by  Mrs.  Austin  and  Prof.  Bache. 
"  Belgium,  from  Foreign  Qu.  Review. 

Ill — NORMAL  SCHOOLS,  OR  TEACHERS'  SEMINARIES. 

History  of  Teachers'  Seminaries.  State  Normal  School  at  Lexington,  Most. 

Essays  on,  by  Rev.  T.  H.  Gallaudet.  Borough  Road  School,  London. 

Address  respecting,  by  Prof.  Stowe.  Primary  Normal  School,  at  Haarlem,  (Holland, 

Account  of  in  Prussia,  by  Dr.  Julius.  Seminary  for  Teachers,  at  Weissenfels,  Prussia. 
France,  by  Guizot.  Potsdam,  " 

Holland,  by  Cousin.  Primary  Normal  School  ut  Stettin. 
Europe,  by  Prof.  Bache.  "  "  "          BrUhl  and  Neuweid 

Massachusetts,  by  Mr.  Mann.  Normal  School  at  Versailles,  France. 
"        "       New  York,  by  Mr.  Dix.  Kussnacht,  Switzerland 

Normal  Seminary,  Glasgow.  "  "  Beuggen,  •' 

Teachers'  Departments,  New  York.  •'  "  Hofwyl,  " 

IV.— ACCOUNT  OF  PARTICULAR  SCHOOLS. 

Infant  Schools.  High  School,  Edinburgh. 

Model  Infant  School,  Glasgow.  School  for  the  Poor,  Amsterdam. 

"          "  "       London.  Primary  School,  Berlin. 

Quaker  Street  Infant,       "  Dorothean  High  School,  " 

Infant  School  in  Lombnrdy.  Burgher  School,  " 

Rotterdam.  Higher  Burgher  School,  Potsdam. 

Evening  Schools.— Schools  of  Industry,  $c.        Lovell's  Lancasterian  School,  New  Haven 
Evening  bchool  in  London.  Schools  of  rffrriculture,  $c.,  ire. 

School  of  Industry  at  Norwood.  City  Trade  School,  Berlin. 

Ealing.  Commercial  School,  Leghorn. 

Lindfield.  Agricultural  School  at  Templemovle. 

Cowers  Walk.  Institute  of  Agriculture,  Wurtemburg. 

Guernsey.  School  of  Arts,  Edinburgh. 

Warwick.  Polytechnic  Institute,  Vienna. 

"    for  Juvenile  Offenders,  Rotterdam.  Technical  School,  Zurich 

Public  Schools  of  Various  Grades.  Institute  of  the  Arts,  Berlin. 

Primary  School  at  the  Hague.  Mechanic  Institutions,  London. 
Intermediate  School  at  Leyden.  «'  "  Manchester. 

Borough  Road  School,  London.  Factory  Schools. 

Sessional  School,  Edinburgh.  Adult  Schools.    Sunday  Schools. 


BOOKS  ON  EDUCATION.  431 

REPORT  ON  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS  OF  RHODE  ISLAND,  for  1845, 
by  Henry  Barnard,  Commissioner  of  Public  Schools.  Providence  : 
C.  Burnett,  Jr. 

ACT  for  ascertaining  the  condition  of  the  Public  Schools,  and  the  better  management  and  improve- 
ment of  the  same. 
Circular  of  Governor  Fenner. 
REPORT  or  COMMISSIONER  OF  PCBLIC  SCHOOLS. 

I.  Mode  of  ascertaining  the  condition  of  Public  Schools,  and  other  means  of  popular  education. 

1.  By  personal  inspection  and  inquiry.    2.  By  circulars  addressed  to  teachers  and  school  com- 
mittees.   3.  By  official  returns  and  reports  of  school  committees.    4.  By  statements  in  public 
meeting,  5 — 7. 

II.  Measures  adopted  to  improve  the  public  schools  under  their  present  organization,  and  prepare 

the  way  for  a  more  complete  and  efficient  system  of  public  instruction.     1.  By  public  lectures. 

2.  By  conversation  and  letters.    3.  By  circulating  tracts,  periodicals,  and  documents  relating 
to  schools,  school  systems,  &c.    4.  By  establishing  a  Library  of  Education  in  each  town. 
5.  By  associations  for  school  improvement.    6.  By  assisting  in  the  selection  of  good  teachers. 
7.  By  a  more  extensive  employment  of  female  teachers.    8.  By  a  gradation  of  schools.    9.  By 
teachers'  associations,  or  institutes.     10.  By  an  itinerating  normal  school  agency.     11.  By 
preparing  the  way  for  one  normal  school.     12.  By  making  known  plans  of  school-houses. 
13.  By  school  apparatus  and  library.    14.  By  lyceums,  lectures,  and  library  associations. 
15.  By  preparing  the  draft  of  school  act,  7—16. 

III.  Defects  in  the  former  organization  and  administration  of  the  svstem,  with  the  outline  of  the 
existing  organization.     1.  Summary  of  defects.    2.  Outline  of"  the  system  as  reorganized 

IV.  Condition  of  the  public  schools,  with  remedies  for  existing  defects,  and  suggestions  for  their 
increasing  usefulness.     1.  Organization.    2.  School-houses.    3.  School  attendance.    4.  Clas- 
sification of  schools.    5.  Agricultural  districts.    C.  Manufacturing  districts.    7.  City  districts. 

APPENDIX. — DOCUMENTS  REFERRED  TO  IN  THE  REPORT. 

I.  Circular  to  Teachers,  and  to  School  Committees,          --..-.-81 
II.  Topics  of  Lectures  on  Education,    ---------        -        -    85 

III.  Associations  for  the  Improvement  of  Public  Schools,   -------86 

Washington  County  Association,          -.------..86 

do.  do.      Teachers'  Institute,  ---------88 

Rhode  Island  Institute  of  Instruction,  ----------89 

IV.  Educational  Tracts, -90 

V.  Books  and  Pamphlets,  relative  to  education,  circulated  in  the  State,        -        -        -        -    91 

VI.  Catalogue  of  Books  in  Library  of  Education,       ----.-.-92 

Educational  Periodicals,       ------------95 

VII.  History  and  condition  of  the  legislation  of  Rhode  Island  respecting  public  schools,        -        97 
VIII.  Draft  of  an  act  respecting  public  schools,  with  remarks  explanatory  of  its  provisions,      -  113 

IX.  Act  relating  to  Public  Schools,  passed  June,  1845, -137 

X.  Statistical  Tables,  relating  to  population,  valuation,  expenditures  of  the  State  and  of  the 

several  towns,       --------------  149 

XI.  Apportionment  of  the  State  appropriation  for  public  schools,  for  1846,         .        -        -      158 
XII.  School-house  Architecture, 165 

XIII.  Names  of  different  kinds  of  text-books  used  in  the  State,     ------      227 

XIV.  Public  Schools  in  cities  and  large  villages,        --....---  229 
XV.  Rules  and  Regulations  of  School  Committees,       --------241 

do.  do.  Providence,       -------  --243 

Index  to  Report,  --------------      253 

JOURNAL  OF  THE  RHODE  ISLAND  INSTITUTE  OF  INSTRUCTION: 
commenced  in  1845,  and  discontinued  in  1849.  Edited  by  Henry 
Barnard,  Commissioner  of  Public  Schools.  The  set  consists  of  three 
volumes.  Price  $3.50  per  set. 

CONTENTS.— VOLUME  I. 
Report  on  the  Public  Schools  of  Rhode  Island  for  1845,  and  the  following  articles  in  Extra 

Journal.  PAGE 

Prospectus  of  Journal,    --------------          j 

Circular  respecting  Teachers' Institutes,  -------__.i 

Teachers'  Institutes,  origin  of,        ------------          5 

Teachers'  Institute  at  Scituate,         ----------..8 

Notices  of  Institutes  and  Public  Meetings,      --------.-12 

Circular  of  Commissioner,  ------        --_.__.     23 

Lyceums — Lectures — Libraries,     --------..        _        .        jg 

Westerly  Lyceum,  ._-..--.....        _        _     JQ 

Progress  of  education, — Vermont,  ------.-..        -17 

"       "          "  Massachusetts,      -------._.        -    19 

Teachers'  Institutes,      --------  -----20 

Scituate  and  Foster  Association,        -----.--._.        .03 

Modes  of  school  improvement,        --------....25 

Books  on  Education,          --------.--..-26 

Progress  of  Education — Virginia,  -  .-...___.        31 

"       "          "  Massachusetts,  .........35 


432  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

PAOK 

Educational  Tracts, 39 

Death  of  Francis  D%vight, ...-40 

Modes  of  school  improvement,        .-------..--41 

Educated  men  and  the  education  of  the  people,         .........49 

Normal  school  at  Kruitzlingen,      ------------51 

Rules  for  the  good  behavior  of  Pupils,       ----------        -54 

Notices  of  Public  Meetings, 56 

Annuiil  Meeting  of  the  Institute  of  Instruction  for  1845,    -        -        -        "/*        "        "        -57 
Professor  Gammell's  Report,  __..-.---.-.        58 

Mr.  Russell's  Remitrks, .......6 

Mr.  Kingsbury's  Report,         ____-----.--        -65 
Modes  of  school  improvement,  .....--...--66 

Duties  of  Parent*  to  their  schools, - 68 

Letter  from  a  Teacher  to  his  Pupil,  73 

School  motives  and  school  vices,    .------.-.--81 

Teachers'  meetings  and  associations,          ...--...-.-    86 

District  SchoolJournal  of  New  York, 

Progress  of  education  in  other  states,         ...----.-.-88 
"      "          "        in  Massachusetts,          ----------89 

"      "          "        in  New  York, 105 

"      "          "        in  Pennsylvania,  ..---.----       uj 

"      "          "        in  Michigan,  J-Jl 

"      "          "        in  Ohio, 126 

Smithsonian  Bequest,        ...         ...........  134 

Organization  of  School  Districts,  -_.-..-....      135 

Progress  of  education  in  Connecticut,        _.-.------.  137 

History  of  the  English  Language,  by  E.  R.  Porter, 153 

Adaptation  of  the  Universe  to  the  cultivation  of  the  mind,  by  R.  G.  Hazard,     -        -        -        -169 
Address  on  Education,  by  R.  G.  Hazard,        ----------      jH9 

Individual  and  Associated  effort, 210 

A  Father's  Prayer  for  his  Son, -        -  ----211 

Index  to  Extra  Journal,     --------------  213 

VOLUME  II.,  FOR  1847. 
Prospectus,     --------------- 

Discourse  before  the  Rhode  Island  Historical  Society,  by  Hon.  Job  Durfee,        -  1 

Causes  of  the  neglect  of  Public  Schools  in  Rhode  Island,        -----  33 

Origin  and  Repeal  of  the  School  Act  of  1830,  by  John  Howland,       ...  .37 

Condition  of  Education  in  Rhode  Island,  in  1828, 38 

Debate  on  the  School  Act  of  1828,  41 

Memorial  from  East  Greenwich,      -----------41 

Remarks  of  J.  L.  Tillinghast, 42 

"  J.  J.  Waterman, 46 

"  —  Dixon, 47 

"  E.  R.  Porter, 48 

"  R.T.Cranston, 48 

Condition  of  Public  Schools  of  Rhodw  Island  in  1832, 49 

Report  by  Oliver  Angell, -...49 

Annual  Abstract  of  School  Returns  for  1839,          ------.--51 

"  "  "  "        for  1844, 53 

Debate  on  the  School  Act  of  1845,         -- 53 

Remarks  of  VVilkins  Updike, 53 

Report  of  School  Committee  of  North  Providence, 57 

"  "  "  Smithfield, 02 

"  "  "  Cumberland, 79 

"  "  "  Scituate, 86 

School -houses, ..--88 

Plan  of  Grounds  for  Village  School, 90 

Plans  for  Schools  of  different  grades, 91 

Plan  of  Public  School  in  City  of  New  York,      -  93 

"        Primary  School, - 96 

Report  on  seats  without  backs,  .-.----...-99 

Boston  Primary  School  Chair, 1UO 

Plans  of  Normal  Schools  in  Massachusetts,         ---------  101 

Brimmer  Grammar  School,  Boston,         --..----_.      107 

Hints  respecting  Blackboards, 109 

Boston  Plan  of  Warming  and  Ventilation,      ---------      112 

Condition  of  School-houses  in  Massachusetts,     ------..-  137 

"  New  York,  Vermont,  Maine,  &c. 139 

Second  Annual  Meeting  of  the  Rhode  Island  Institute  of  Instruction,        -        ...        -153 
Mr.  Perry's  Report,         -----.._-_--.-      133 

Libraries — value  of  books,         ___...._.._..  163 

Origin  of  District  School  Libraries,        -----------      107 

Letter  of  Jnmes  Wadsworth,  of  Genesee,  New  York,        --------   l,J7 

Report  of  D.  D.  Barnard, 171 

The  first  Juvenile  Library  in  America,      ---------  -  173 

Act  relating  to  Libraries  "in  Rhode  Island, --175 

Specimen  of  Constitution  for  Library  Association,     ---------  176 

Catalogue  of  Books  for  Village  Libraries,         ----------       177 

Ruies  and  Regulations  for  the  use  of  the  books  of  a  Library,     ------        -205 


BOOKS  ON  EDUCATION. 


433 


PAGX 

Normal  Schools,     --------  -211 

State  Normal  Schools  in  Massachusetts,    -----------  212 

New  York  State  Normal  School, 2J6 

Acts  relating  to  Public  Schools  in  Rhode  Island,        ---------225 

Remarks  on  the  several  provisions  of  the  same,       ---------      241 

Forms  for  conducting  proceedings  under  the  same,    ---------  262 

Form  of  District  Return,        --..-.------.gg 

Specimen  of  Rules  and  Regulations  for  School  Committee*,      ------        -289 

Index  to  School  Law,  Remarks  and  Forms, 293 

Progress  of  Education  in  the  United  States  for  1847,          --------305 

Connecticut,  -_.-___...._-_      395 

Prize  Essay  by  Noah  Porter, 307 

Maine, 328 

Massachusetts,    ---------------  331 

New  Hampshire, 331 

Vermont,    ----------------  332 

New  York, 333 

New  Jersey,        -------_.-_--._  333 

Report  on  Normal  Schools,     ------  .....      333 

Pennsylvania,     ------.--.----_  344 

Maryland, 346 

Virginia, 346 

Letter  of  S.  S.Randall, 347 

Ohio, 348 

Indiana,          ------.........350 

Teachers'  Institute  in  Rhode  Island  for  1847, 353 

Centreville,          --........-354 

Pawtucket,      -------....-361 

Progress  of  Teachers' Institutes  in  Connecticut,     -----..--309 

New  York,  --.-..-.-369 

Massachusetts,          --------380 

Ohio, 382 

New  Hampshire, 388 

Maine, 390 

Michigan, 393 

Vermont,     -.--._..--  394 

Rhode  Island, 395 

Teachers'  Meetings  and  Associations,        --------..-393 

Topics  for  discussion,  &c.       ------..__---      398 

List  of  Educational  Periodicals,         -----.....-.399 

VOLUME  III. 
Report  of  Commissioner  of  Public  Schools  for  1848,       ------_-          1 

Third  Annual  Report  of  Executive  Committee  of  Rhode  Island  Institute  of  Instruction,    -        -      3 

Officers  for  1847, .-..__ 

Proceedings  of  Third  Annual  Meeting,      -----__-.        --13 

Remarks  of  Mr.  Barnard,       ------.__-..-        15 

"          Prof.  Gammell,       -------------23 

"          Rev.  Mr.  Osgood,         ---..-..-.--25 

Mr.  Bishop, 26 

Evening  Schools, --28 

Documents  relating  to  the  History  and  Condition  of  Public  Schools  in  Rhode  Island,         -        -    33 
"  "  "  "  "  Providence,  -        33 

Letter  of  John  Rowland  in  1824, -.44 

Report  by  President  Wayland  in  1828, 46 

Memorial  of  Mechanics'  Association,  1837,         ---------55 

Report  to  City  Council, ----...57 

Ordinance  of  City  Council,  1S38, 58 

Organization  of  Public  Schools  in  1848,          -_----._.        62 
Report  of  School  Committee  for  1838,         .......       ...54 

1839, 64 

1840, 65 

1841, 67 

1842, 73 

1843, 74 

1844, 75 

1845, 75 

1846, 76 

1847, 80 

1848, 81 

Rules  and  Regulations,  1848, ..-84 

Report  of  School  Committee  of  North  Providence,  1848,    ------..97 

Scituate,  1848, 103 

Smithneld, ...-108 

Glocester,  1847,     ---------      122 

1848, 126 

Coventry,  1847,     ----...--128 

1848, 138 

Warwick,  1847, 141 

Cumberland,  1848, 142 

28 


434  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

PAOK 

Report  of  School  Committee  of  Burrillville,  1847, 144 

"  "  "  Newport,  1827, 145 

«        1828,      -        -        -        -  -        -        -        -      148 

"        1844, 150 

"        1848, 153 

Bristol,      1843,         ---------158 

1845, -      160 

1847, 163 

1848, 171 

Warren, -----174 

School  Architecture,      -- -------176 

Ingraham's  Primary  School-house,  Boston,        -------_._  177 

Boston  and  other  School  Furniture,        -.----_____      201 

Uuincy  Grammar  School-house,        .----.-.....  208 

Putnam  Free  School-house,  Newburyport,     ----------      211 

Public  High  School-house,  Hartford, ------214 

Free  Academy  in  City  of  New  York,    -----------223 

Culver's  Furnace,      - 230 

Public  School-houses  in  Providence,      ---------.-233 

Public  High  School,  -----------...  253 

Plans  of  School-houses  with  Apartments  for  Teacher,    --------260 

Teacher's  Desk,         -.---------._,.  272 

Remarks  on  School-houses  in  Rhode  Island,  ----..-_.      273 

Principles  of  School  Architecture, -------274 

Principles  of  Ventilation,       -----------.        -      277 

Plans  of  School-houses  with  one  School-room,  -.---_.._  280 

Plan  of  Grounds  fur  Infant  School,         ------.--.-283 

Primary  School-house  in  Westerly,    ------------284 

Village  School-house  at  Allendale,  North  Providence,    --------285 

District  School-house  in  Glocester,    ------------286 

"  Barrington,      -----------      288 

Mott's  Ventilating  School  Stove, -------290 

Boston  Ventilating  School  Stove,  ------------      291 

District  School-house  in  Cranston,    ------------292 

"  at  Clayville,  Scituate,          ---------292 

"  at  Centreville,  Warwick, 294 

Remarks  on  Gradation  of  Schools,          ----__-        ...-29G 

Public  School-house  in  Warren, -------305 

Union  School-house  at  Woonsocket,     -----------      308 

"  Chepachet, 309 

"  Pawtucket,          -----------      3]Q 

Village  School-house  at  Centre  Mill, ------312 

Washington  Village, 314 

Female  Seminary  of  Mr.  Kingsbury,  Providence,       --------       -315 

Chilson's  Furnace,          -----.-...__._      3jg 

Bushnell's      •'  ------_..._...-  313 

Apparatus  for  District  Schools,      -----..---..319 

Grammar  Schools,       -----------.  323 

High  Schools,  &c. 325 

Hints  respecting  blackboards,    ------  ....--374 

Library — List  of  Books  on  Education,  --..-.__--      379 

"          "  "       of  Reference,        ---..-.-__-  390 

Rules  for  the  Care  and  Preservation  of  School-houses,    --------391 

Dedicatory  Exercises,        --------------401 

Address  of  G.  B.  Emerson,      ------------402 

"  Gideon  F.  Thayer, 405 

"  President  Wayland, 408 

Rev.  Mr.  Osgood,       --.-...---.-414 

"  President  Everett,  --.-.-...--419 

Remarks  on  Libraries  in  Rhode  Island,      -----------425 

History  and  Catalogue  of  Pawcatuck  Library  Association.    -------429 

General  Index  to  Vols.  I.,  II.  and  IIL. 549 


CARE  OF  i?CHOOL  HOUSES.  435 

RULES  FOR  THE  CARE  AND  PRESERVATION  OF  SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

The  following  provisions  are  included  among  the  Regulations  for  the 
Government  of  Teachers  and  Pupils  of  Public  Schools,  adopted  by  School 
Committees  in  most  of  the  towns  of  Rhode  Island : 

For  Teachers: 

There  shall  be  a  recess  of  at  least  fifteen  minutes  in  the  middle  of  every 
half  day ;  but  the  primary  schools  may  have  a  recess  of  ten  minutes  ever}'  hoar: 
at  the  discretion  of  the  teacher. 

It  shall  be  the  duty  of  teachers  to  see  that  fires  are  made,  in  cold  weather,  in 
their  respective  school-rooms,  at  a  seasonable  hour  to  render  them  warm  and 
comfortable  by  school  time ;  to  take  care  that  their  rooms  are  properly  swept 
and  dusted ;  and  that  a  due  regard  to  neatness  and  order  is  observed,  both  in 
and  around  the  school-house. 

As  pure  air  of  a  proper  temperature  is  indispensable  to  health  and  comfort, 
teachers  cannot  be  too  careful  in  giving  attention  to  these  things.  If  the  room 
has  no  ventilator,  the  doors  and  windows  should  be  opened  before  and  after 
school,  to  permit  a  free  and  healthful  circulation  of  air;  and  the  temperature 
should  be  regulated  by  a  thermometer  suspended,  five  or  six  feet  from  the  floor, 
in  such  a  position  as  to  indicate  as  near  as  possible  the  average  temperature, 
and  should  be  kept  about  65  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

The  teachers  shall  take  care  that  the  school-houses,  tables,  desks,  and  appa- 
ratus in  the  same,  and  all  the  public  property  entrusted  to  their  charge,  be  nol 
cut,  scratched,  marked,  or  injured  and  defaced  in  any  manner  whatever.  And 
it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  teachers  to  give  prompt  notice  to  one  or  more  of  the 
trustees,  of  any  repairs  that  may  be  needed. 

For  Pupils : 

Every  pupil  who  shall,  accidentally  or  otherwise,  injure  any  school  property, 
whether  fences,  gates,  trees  or  shrubs,  or  any  building  or  any  part  thereof;  or 
break  any  window  glass,  or  injure  or  destroy  any  instrument,  apparatus  or  fur- 
niture belonging  to  the  school,  shall  be  liable  to  pay  all  damages. 

Every  pupil  who  shall  any  where,  on  or  around  the  school  premises,  use  or 
write  any  profane  or  unchaste  language,  or  shall  draw  any  obscene  pictures  or 
representations,  or  cut,  mark,  or  otherwise  intenf.ionally  deface  any  school  fur- 
niture or  buildings,  or  any  property  whatsoever  belonging  to  the  school  estate, 
shall  be  punished  in  proportion  to  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  offence,  and 
shall  be  liable  to  the  action  of  the  civil  law. 

No  scholar  of  either  sex  shall  be  permitted  to  enter  any  part  of  the  yard  or 
buildings  appropriated  to  the  other,  without  the  teacher's  permission. 

Smoking  and  chewing  tobacco  in  the  school-house  or  upon  the  school  prem- 
ises, are  strictly  prohibited. 

The  scholars  shall  pass  through  the  streets  on  their  way  to  and  from  school 
in  an  orderly  and  becoming  manner;  shall  clean  the  mud  and  dirt  from  their 
feet  on  entering  the  school-room:  and  take  their  seats  in  a  quiet  and  respectful 
manner,  as  soon  as  convenient  after  the  first  bell  rings;  and  shall  take  proper 
care  that  their  books,  desks,  and  the  floor  around  them,  are  kept  clean  and  in 
good  order. 

It  is  expected  that  all  the  sr.holars  who  enjoy  the  advantages  of  public  schools, 
will  give  proper  attention  to  the  cleanliness  of  their  persons,  and  the  neatness 
and  decency  of  their  clothes — not  only  for  the  moral  effect  of  the  habit  of  neat- 
ness and  order,  but  that  the  pupils  may  be  at  all  times  prepared,  both  in  con- 
duct and  external  appearance — to  receive  their  friends  and  visitors  in  a  respect- 
able manner ;  and  to  render  the  school-room  pleasant,  comfortable  and  happy 
for  teachers  and  scholars. 

In  the  "  Regulations  of  the  Public  Schools  in  the  city  of  Providence?3 
it  is  made  the  duty  "  of  the  principal  teacher  in  each  school-house,  for  the 
compensation  allowed  by  the  Committee,  to  employ  some  suitable  person 
to  make  the  fires  in  the  same  when  necessary,  and  to  see  that  this  import- 
ant work  is  properly  and  economically  done ;"  also  '•'  for  the  compensation 


43  Q  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

allowed,  to  employ  some  suitable  person  to  sweep  the  room  and  its  entries 
daily,  and  dust  the  blinds,  seats,  desks,  and  other  furniture  in  the  same, 
and  to  clean  the  same  once  a  quarter,  and  to  see  that  this  work  is  neatly 
and  properly  done." 

The  teachers  must  also  "  take  care  that  the  school-houses,  the  appara- 
tus in  the  same,  and  all  the  public  property  entrusted  to  their  charge,  be 
not  defaced,  or  otherwise  injured  by  the  scholars,  and  to  give  prompt 
notice  to  the  Superintendant  of  any  repairs  and  supplies  that  may  be 
needed." 

PRACTICAL  SUGGESTIONS  RESPECTING  VENTILATION,  FIRES,  SWEEP- 
ING AND  Dl/STING. 

The  following  suggestions  are  taken  from  the  Manual  of  the  System  of 
Discipline  and  Instruction  for  the  Schools  of  the  Public  School  Society  of 
New  York: 

VENTILATION. 

Strict  attention  should  be  paid  to  all  the  means  provided  for  temperature  and 
ventilation.  During  the  season  of  fires,  the  thermometer  should  be  watched, — 
and  the  ventilating  flues,  windows,  doors,  and  stoves,  should  be  constantly  at- 
tended to, — and  every  precaution  taken,  to  give  as  pure  an  atmosphere  to  the 
school-room,  as  circumstances  will  allow.  This  is  not  only  necessary,  for  a 
proper  and  free  exercise  of  the  physical  powers, — but  it  will  be  found  greatly  to 
influence  every  mental  exercise;  for,  both  will  partake  of  either  languor,  or 
vigor,  according  as  ventilation  is  neglected,  or  duly  attended  to.  In  warm 
weather,  the  upper  sashes  should  be  down  during  school  hours,  and  allowed  to 
remain  open  about  four  inches  during  the  night, — except,  that  on  occasion  of  a 
storm,  the  windows  against  which  it  beats,  may  be  closed.  In  winter,  except- 
ing when  the  weather  is  exceedingly  cold  and  piercing,  it  may  be  of  advantage 
to  have  two  or  more  of  the  upper  sashes  down  about  an  inch  during  the  night; 
but  these  as  well  as  the  doors  should  be  closed  before  kindling  the  fires.  Two 
or  more  of  the  upper  sashes  should  be  drawn  down  at  the  end  of  the  first  half 
hour  after  opening  school,— and  again,  for  a  short  time  at  each  successive  half 
hour,— and  whenever  the  thermometer  rises  to  70  degrees.  At  all  seasons,  the 
windows  and  doors  should  be  thrown  wide  open  for  a  few  minutes  during  each 
recess,  while  the  scholars  are  in  the  yard.  The  teacher  should  be  careful  to 
require  all  the  scholars  to  go  out,  except  such  as  may  reasonably  be  excused  on 
account  of  infirmity  or  sickness;  and  even  these  should  be  required  to  change 
their  places,  and  to  exercise  themselves  by  walking  to  and  fro  in  the  school-room. 
At  all  seasons,  at  the  close  of  school,  all  the  doors  and  windows  should  be 
opened  for  a  few  minutes,  in  order  that  a  pure  atmosphere  may  be  admitted 
and  retained  during  the  noon-time  recess,  or  at  night.  A  thermometrical  diary 
must  be  kept  during  the  winter  season,  and  the  temperature  of  the  room  noted 
at  the  opening,  middle,  and  close,  of  each  daily  session.  Further  directions  on 
this  point  are  given  in  the  instructions  for  making  fires.  The  window-blinds 
and  curtains  are  for  the  purpose  of  guarding  against  the  sunshine,  or  observa- 
tion from  without.  They  should,  therefore,  be  so  managed,  as  only  to  exclude 
the  direct  rays  of  the  sun,  and  kept  open  or  shut  accordingly.  When  required 
as  a  screen  from  observation,  they  should  extend  no  farther  than  necessary  for 
that,  purpose.  Attention  to  these  rules  will  give  an  air  of  cheerfulness  within, 
so  congenial  to  the  young.  It  is  important  that  this  fact  be  impressed  on  all — 
that  air,  and  light,  are  grand  essentials  in  a  school-room:  let  the  first  be  freely 
admitted,  and  the  second  never  causelessly  excluded. 

FIRES. 

The  ashes  should  be  taken  from  the  stoves  in  the  morning  only,  leaving  a 
laver  of  one  inch  in  depth  :  then  to  proceed  to  build  wilh  the  materials  after  the 
following  manner:  Place  one  large  stick  on  each  side;  in  the  space  between 
them,  place  the  kindling  wood;  and  above  it,  the  small  wood,  somewhat  cross- 
wise ;  then,  set  fire  to  the  kindling,  and  close  the  stove  door.  See  that  the 


CARE  OF  SCHOOL  HOUSES  437 

draught  is  cleared  of  ashes,  or  other  obstructions;  and  that  the  dampers  arc 
properly  adjusted;  (these  are  generally  so  arranged  as  to  open  the  draught 
when  the  handle  is  parallel  with  the  pipe).  If  the  materials  have  been  laid  ac- 
cording tc  the  foregoing  directions,  the  combustion  will  be  free.  Should  the 
temperature  of  the  room  be  as  low  as  40°,  fill  the  stove  with  wood.  Under  or- 
dinary circumstances,  in  thirty-five  minutes  the  temperature  will  be  raised  to 
60  degrees,— at  which  point  it  should  certainly  be,  at  the  time  of  opening  school ; 
when  the  stove  may  be  supplied  with  one  or  two  large  sticks.  At  all  times,  be- 
fore supplying  wood,  draw  forward  the  brands  and  coals  with  the  fire-hook.  If 
there  should  be  too  much  fire,  open  the  stove  door,  and  if  necessary,  turn  the 
damper, — or,  what  may  be  better  for  economy,  effectually  close  the  draft  at  the 
stove  door  with  ashes.  By  attention  to  all  these  directions,*  the  temperature 
may  be  maintained,  the  wood  entirely  consumed,  and  the  thermometer  stand  at 
60  degrees,  at  the  close  of  the  school ;  which  is  desirable  in  cold  weather,  so  ay 
not  to  subject  the  pupils  to  too  sudden  a  change  of  temperature  on  going  into 
the  open  air.  The  evaporating  pan  should  be  kept  clean,  and  filled  with  watei 
when  in  use.  In  damp  rooms  it  is  not  needed, — nor  in  damp  weather : — but  it 
should  be  emptied,  and  wiped  dry,  before  it  is  set  aside. 

DUSTING   AND    SWEEPING. 

For  a  large  room,  or  one  department  of  a  Public  School  building,  six  brooms 
will  be  found  sufficient  to  be  in  use.  When  half  worn,  they  will  serve  for 
sweeping  the  yard ;  and  when  well  worn  down  in  that  service,  will  still  be  use- 
ful for  scrubbing,  with  water  or  sand;  and,  if  properly  used  by  the  sweepers, 
will  be  evenly  worn  to  the  last.  Before  sweeping,  pull  down  the  upper  sashes, 
and  raise  the  under  ones.  Let  the  sweepers  be  arranged,  one  to  each  passage 
between  the  desks, — and,  beginning  at  the  windward  side,  sweep  the  dirt  before 
them,  till  it  is  carried  forward  to  the  opposite  side  of  the  room.  The  broom 
should  rest  square  on  the  floor,  and,  with  the  motion  used  in  raking  hay,  should 
be  drawn  towards  the  sweeper,  without  flirting  it  outwards,  or  upwards,  which 
raises  unnecessary  dust,  and  wears  the  broom  irregularly.  The  dirt,  when 
taken  up,  should  be  carried  into  the  middle  of  the  street.  The  dusting  is  to  be 
done  in  the  same  regular  manner,  allowing  a  suitable  interval  after  sweeping. 
If  at  noon,  dusting  should  be  done 'shortly  before  school  time;  if  at  night,  dust 
the  next  morning.  In  out-door  sweeping,  the  same  rule  is  to  be  followed— the 
sweepers  going  in  ranks,  and  sweeping  from  the  windward.  Let  the  scrubbing 
be  done  by  a  similar  method.  When  once  acquainted  with  these  methodical 
plans,  the  cleaners  will  do  the  work,  not  only  more  effectually,  but  with  more 
satisfaction  and  ease  to  themselves — and  being  a  part  of  domestic  economy,  it 
will  be,  so  far,  an  advantage  to  understand  how  to  do  it  well. 

Although  not  strictly  within  the  design  of  this  work,  but  as  closely  con- 
nected with  habits  of  neatness  and  order,  we  insert  from  the  Manual  quo- 
ted above,  the  following  directions  for  delivering,  holding,  and  returning 
a  book. 

The  Manual  is  soon  to  be  enlarged,  and  well  deserves  a  place  in  every 
teacher's  library,  although  it  has  special  reference  to  the  organization  and 
system  of  instruction  adopted  in  the  schools  of  the  Public  School  Society. 

*  From  a  return  recently  made  out  respecting  the  quantity  and  cost  of  fuel  used  in  the  dif- 
ferent schools  of  the  Public  School  Society,  it  appears  that  the  average  cost  of  wood  for  a  house 
like  No.  17,  (plans  and  description  of  which  may  be  seen  on  p.  100,)  having  13  stoves,  including 
cartage,  sawing,  carrying  in  and  piling,  is  $160.  The  lowest  cost  is  $141,  and  the  highest,  $200. 
In  a  Primary  house,  (like  that  described  on  page  103,)  having  four  stoves,  the  average  cost  is  $33 ; 
the  highest  being440,  and  the  lowest  $25.  The  difference  in  the  cost  is  mainly  to  be  attributed 
to  the  difference  in  the  care  and  oversight  of  the  fire  by  the  teacher. 

With  a  view  of  correcting  the  evil,  the  committee  having  charge  of  this  business  have  pre- 
pared a  table  which  exhibits  at  one  view  the  quantity  of  wood  furnished  to  each  school,  so  aa 
to  enable  every  teacher  to  compare  himself  with  every  other  in  this  particular. 

The  cost  of  heating  a  Primary  building  of  the  same  size,  by  wood  in  a  furnace,  is  $75,  and  at 
Ward  school  building,  of  the  same  size  as  No.  17,  by  coal  in  a  furnace,  is  $260. 


438  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

REGULATIONS  OF  CHAUNCY-HALL  SCHOOL,  BOSTON. 

The  following  Regulations  of  one  of  the  best  conducted  Private  Schools 
for  Boys  in  New  England,  will  furnish  useful  hints  to  teachers  in  framing 
regulations  for  their  own  schools,  especially  in  reference  to  the  good  be- 
havior of  the  pupils,  and  to  the  care  of  the  school-room,  furniture,  &c. 

REQUISITION. 

Boys  are  required  to  be  punctual  at  school. 

To  scrape  their  feet  on  the  scraper,  and  to  wipe  them  on  every  mat  they  pass 
over  on  their  way  to  the  hall. 

To  hang  their  hats,  caps,  coats,  &c.,  on  the  hooks  appropriated  to  them  re- 
spectively, by  loops  prepared  for  the  purpose. 

To  bow  gracefully  and  respectfully  on  entering  and  leaving  the  hall,  and  any 
recitation  room  when  a  teacher  is  present. 

To  take  their  places  on  entering  the  hall. 

To  make  no  unnecessary  noise  within  the  walls  of  the  building,  at  any  time 
of  night  or  day. 

To  keep  their  persons,  clothes,  and  shoes  clean. 

To  carry  and  bring  their  books  for  study,  in  a  satchel. 

To  quit  the  neighborhood  of  the  school  in  a  quiet  and  orderly  manner,  im- 
mediately after  dismissal. 

To  bring  notes  for  absence,  dated,  and  signed  by  persons  authorized  to  do  so, 
and  stating  the  duration  of  the  absence;  also,  notes  for  tardiness,  and  for  occa- 
sions when  pupils  are  wanted  at  home  before  the  regular  hour  of  dismissal. 

To  study  lessons  at  home,  except  when  inconvenient  to  the  family — in  such 
cases  to  bring  a  certificate  of  the  tact  in  writing. 

To  present  a  pen  by  the  feather  end;  a  knife,  by  its  handle;  a  book,  the  right 
side  upward  to  be  read  by  the  person  receiving  it. 

To  bow  on  presenting  or  receiving  any  thing. 

To  stand  while  speaking  to  a  teacher. 

To  keep  all  books  clean,  and  the  contents  of  desks  neatly  arranged. 

To  deposite  in  desks  all  books  (except  writing  books,)  slates,  pencils,  rulers, 
&c.,  before  dismissal. 

To  give  notice  through  the  school  Post  Office,  of  all  books,  slates,  Ace., 
missing. 

To  pick  up  hats,  caps,  coats,  pens,  slips,  books,  &c.,  found  on  the  floor,  and 
put  them  in  their  appropriate  places. 

To  replace  lost  keys,  books,  &c.,  belonging  to  the  school,  and  make  good  all 
damage  done  by  them. 

To  write  all  requests  on  their  slates,  and  wait  until  called. 

To  close  desks  and  fasten  them  before  quitting  school  for  the  session. 

To  raise  the  hand  as  a  request  to  speak  across  the  hall  or  any  recitation 
room. 

To  show  two  fingers  when  a  pen  is  wanted. 

To  put  all  refuse  paper,  stumps  of  pens,  &c.,  in  the  dust  box. 

To  be  accountable  for  the  condition  of  the  floor  nearest  their  own  seats. 

To  fill  all  vacant  time  with  ciphering,  as  a  general  occupation ;  and  to  give 
notice  to  the  teacher,  before  dismissal,  in  case  of  omitting  the  exercise  wholly 
on  any  day. 

To  be  particularly  vigilant,  when  no  teacher  is  in  the  hall. 

To  promote  as  far  as  possible,  the  happiness,  comfort,  and  improvement  of 
others. 

To  follow  every  class-mate  while  reading,  and  correct  all  errors  discoverer 
in  pronunciation,  emphasis,  or  inflection. 

To  point  the  fore  finger  of  the  left  hand,  at  each  letter  or  figure  of  the  slip  of 
copy,  while  writing,  and  the  leather  of  the  pen  towards  the  right  shoulder. 

To  keep  the  writing  book  square  in  front. 

To  rest  the  body  on  the  left  arm,  while  spelling,  and  keep  the  eye  directed 
towards  their  own  slates. 

To  sit  erectly  against  the  back  of  the  chairs,  during  the  singing  lessons,  and 
to  direct  their  attention  to  the  instructor. 


REGULATIONS  OF  CHAUNCYHALL  SCHOOL.  439 

Transferrers  to  show  reports  finished  as  early  in  the  week  as  3  o'clock  on 
Tuesday,  P.  M. 

PROHIBITIONS. 

Boys  are  forbidden  to  buy  or  sell,  borrow  or  lend,  give,  take,  or  exchange, 
any  thing,  except  fruit  or  other  eatables,  without  the  teacher's  permission. 

To  read  any  book  in  school  except  such  as  contain  the  reading  lesson  of  his 
class. 

To  have  in  his  possession  at  school  any  book  without  the  teacher's  knowledge. 

To  throw  pens,  paper,  or  any  thing  whatever  on  the  floor,  or  out  at  a  window 
or  door. 

To  go  out  to  play  with  his  class  when  he  has  had  a  deviation. 

To  spit  on  the  floor. 

To  climb  £>n  any  fence,  railing,  ladder,  &c.,  about  the  school-house. 

To  scrawl  on,  blot,  or  mark  slips. 

To  mark,  cut,  scratch,  chalk,  or  otherwise  disfigure,  injure,  ordefile,  any  por- 
tion of  the  building  or  any  thing  connected  with  it. 

To  take  out  an  inkstand,  meddle  with  the  contents  of  another's  desk,  or  un- 
necessarily open  or  shut  his  own. 

To  write  without  using  a  card  and  wiper. 

To  quit  school  without  having  finished  his  copy. 

To  use  a  knife,  except  on  the  conditions  prescribed. 

To  remove  class  lists  from  their  depositories. 

To  meddle  with  ink  unnecessarily. 

To  study  home  lessons  in  school  hours. 

To  leave  the  hall  at  any  time  without  leave. 

To  pass  noisily,  or  upon  the  run,  from  one  room  to  another,  or  through  the 
entries. 

To  visit  the  office,  furnace  room,  or  any  closet  or  teacher's  room,  except  in 
class,  without  a  written  permit. 

To  play  at  paw  paw  any  where,  or  any  game  within  the  building. 

To  play  in  the  play-ground  before  school. 

To  leave  whittlings  or  other  rubbish  in  the  play-ground,  on  the  side-walk,  or 
around  the  building. 

To  go  out  of  the  play-ground  in  school  hours. 

To  carry  out  his  pen  on  his  ear. 

To  use  any  profane  or  indelicate  language. 

To  nick-name  any  person. 

To  press  his  knees,  in  sitting,  against  a  form. 

To  leave  his  seat  for  any  purpose,  but  to  receive  class  instruction. 

To  go  home,  when  deficient,  without  having  answered  to  his  name. 

To  indulge  in  eating  or  drinking  in  school. 

To  go  out  in  class,  after  having  been  out  singly ;  or  going  out  singly,  to  linger 
below  to  play. 

To  waste  school  hours  by  unnecessary  talking,  laughing,  playing,  idling, 
standing  up,  turning  round,  teazing,  or  otherwise  calling  off  the  attention  of 
another  boy. 

To  throw  stones,  snow-balls,  or  other  missiles  about  the  neighborhood  of  the 
school. 

To  bring  bats,  hockey  sticks,  bows  and  arrows,  or  other  dangerous  play-things 
to  school. 

To  visit  a  privy  in  company  with  any  one. 

To  strike,  kick,  push,  or  otherwise  annoy  his  associates  or  others. 

In  fine,  to  do  any  thing  that  the  law  of  love  forbids— that  law  which  requires 
us  To  do  to  others  as  we  would  think  it  right  that  they  should  do  to  us. 

These  regulations  are  not  stated  according  to  their  relative  importance,  but 
as  they  have  been  adopted  or  called  to  mind.  They  are  intended  to  meet  gen- 
eral circumstances,  but  may  be  waived  in  cases  of  necessity,  by  special  permis- 
sion, obtained  in  the  prescribed  mode. 

In  a  Lecture  on  Courtesy,  delivered  before  the  American  Institute  of 
Instruction  at  Boston,  in  August,  1840,  Mr.  Thayer.  the  Principal  of  the 
Chauncy  Hall  School,  introduced  the  above  regulat:ons  as  the  topics  of 


440  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

his  discourse.  We  extract  portions  of  this  admirable  lecture,  which  may 
be  found  entire  in  the  annual  volume  of  the  American  Institute,  published 
in  1842,  and  in  the  Massachusetts  Common  School  Journal,  Vol.  II,  for 
1840. 

Scraping  the  feel  at  the  door,  and  wiping  them  on  the  mats.  This  should  be  insisted 
on  as  one  of  the  most  obvious  items  in  the  code  of  cleanliness.  It  is  not  only 
indispensable  to  the  decent  appearance  of  a  school  room,  but,  if  neglected,  a 
large  quantity  of  soil  is  carried  in  on  the  feet,  which,  in  the  course  of  the  day, 
is  ground  to  powder,  and  a  liberal  portion  inhaled  at  the  nostrils,  and  otherwise 
deposited  in  the  system,  to  its  serious  detriment.  Besides,  if  the  habit  of  neg- 
lecting this  at  school  is  indulged,  it  is  practiced  elsewhere ;  and  the  child,  en- 
tering whatever  place  he  may,  shop,  store,  kitchen,  or  drawing  room,  carries 
along  with  him  his  usual  complement  of  mud  and  dirt ;  and  the  unscraped  and 
unwiped  feet  are  welcome  nowheie,  among  persons  a  single  grade  above  the 
quadruped  race. 

I  may  be  told,  it  is  a  matter  little  attended  to  by  many  adult  persons  of  both 
sexes.  To  which  I  would  reply,  in  the  language  of  Polonius, 

"  »T  is  true— 't  is  pity  ; 

And  pity  't  is — 't  is  true." 

But  this,  instead  of  being  an  argument  in  favor  of  the  non-observance  of  the 
wholesome  rule  in  our  schools,  only  points  more  emphatically  to  the  duty  of 
teachers  in  relation  to  it;  for  when,  unless  during  the  school-days,  are  such 
habits  to  be  corrected,  and  better  ones  established  1 

I  am  fully  aware  of  the  difficulty  of  carrying  rules  like  this  into  execution, 
even  among  children  of  double  the  age  of  those  that  form  the  schools  of  some 
who  hear  me ;  and  do  not  forget  how  much  this  difficulty  is  increased  by  the 
tender  age,  and  consequently  greater  thoughtlessness,  of  most  of  the  pupils  of  the 
schools  usually  taught  by  females ;  but  still,  much  may  be  done  by  proclaiming 
the  rule,  and  placing  at  the  school  entrance  one  of  the  elder  scholars,  to  remind 
the  others  of  it,  and  see  that  it  is  observed,  until  the  cleanly  habit  be  established. 

In  the  school  above  alluded  to,  the  rule  has  grown  into  so  general  observance, 
that  the  discovery  of  mud  on  the  stairs  or  entry  leads  immediately  to  the  inquiry, 
whether  any  stranger  has  been  in.  For,  though  few  carry  the  habit  with  them, 
all  are  so  trained  by  daily  drilling,  that  it  soon  becomes  as  difficult  to  neglect  it, 
as  it  was  at  first  to  regard  it. 

Hanging  up  on  the  hooks,  caps,  outer  garments,  <$~c.,  by  loops.  It  is  not  every 
school  that  is  provided  with  hooks  or  pegs  for  children's  caps,  garments,  &c. 
All,  however,  should  be  so  provided  with  as  much  certainty  as  seats  are  fur- 
nished to  sit  upon.  It  not  only  encourages  the  parents  to  send  the  children  in 
comfortable  trim,  but  induces'  the  children  to  take  better  care  of  their  things, 
especially  if  a  particular  hook  or  peg  be  assigned  to  each  individual  pupil.  It 
is  one  step  in  the  system  of  order,  so  essential  to  the  well-being  of  those  des- 
tined to  live  among  fellow-men.  If  dependent  on  the  attention  of  mothers  at 
home,  I  am  aware  that  many  children  would  often  be  destitute  of  the  loops 
spoken  of;  but  the  children  themselves  could  supply  these,  under  the  teacher's 
supervision;  for  I  understand  the  use  of  the  needle  is  taught,  in  many  schools, 
to  the  younger  pupils  of  both  sexes,  and  has  been  found  a  very  satisfactory 
mode  of  filling  up  time,  which,  among  the  junior  classes,  would  otherwise  be 
devoted  to  idleness. 

The  next  in  order  is,  on  keeping  clean  the  person,  clothes,  and  shoes.  This, 
I  am  aware,  must  cost  the  teacher  a  great  deal  of  labor  to  enforce ;  for  if  sent 
from  home  in  a  clean  condition,  the  chances  are  more  than  two  to  one,  that,  on 
reaching  school,  a  new  ablution  will  be  necessary.  And  in  how  many  families 
this  business  of  ablution  is  rarely  attended  to  at  all,  with  any  fidelity ;  and  as 
to  clean  clothes  and  shoes,  if  insisted  on,  the  answer  might  be  in  some  such 
pleasant  and  laconic  language  as  this :  "  He  ought  to  be  thankful  that  he  can 
get  any  clothes,  without  all  this  fuss,  as  if  he  were  dressing  for  a  wedding  or  a 
coronation !"  Still,  the  rule  is  a  good  one,  and  should  be  enforced,  as  far  as  prac- 
ticable. Water  can  at  least  be  had ;  and  if  a  child  seems  a  stranger  to  its  ap- 
plication, one  or  two  of  the  elder  scholars  should  be  sent  out,  as  is  the  practice 
'n  some  European  schools,  to  introduce  it  to  him,  and  aid  him  in  using  it.  And 
f  you  can  arouse  him  to  feel  some  pride  in  keeping  his  dress  and  person  clean, 


REGULATIONS  OF  CHAUNCY  HALL  SCHOOL.  44  J 

and  his  shoes  well  polished,  or  at  least,  in  keeping  them  free  ofmitd.  you  teach 
him  a  lesson  of  sell-respect,  lhat  may  prove  his  temporal  salvation,  and  bring 
him  to  be,  when  out  of  school,  instead  of  the  squalid  vagrant,  a  companion  of 
pilierers  and  refugees  from  justice,  the  incipient  worthy  member  of  society,  and 
perhaps  a  benefactor  of  his  race.  It  is  amazing  to  reflect  how  very  slight  a 
circumstance  in  the  life  of  a  human  being,  in  the  early  stages,  sometimes  casts 
him  on  that  tide,  which  leads  to  glory  or  to  infamy ! 

Some  one  of  note  has  said,  that  "  he  considers  cleanliness  as  next  to  godli- 
ness;" and  I  have  been  accustomed  to  look  upon  one,  thoroughly  clean  in  the 
outward  man,  as  necessarily  possessing  a  clean  heart,  a  pure  spirit.  Whether 
it  may  be  adopted  as  a  rule  of  judgment  or  not,  need  not  now  be  decided.  The 
claims  of  cleanliness  are,  without  considering  the  deduction  as  infallible,  too 
commanding  to  be  resisted,  and  should  ever  bs  maintained. 

The  fourth  relates  to  quitting  the  neighborhood  of  the  school,  on  being  dis- 
missed. This  is  desirable  for  the  safety  of  ths  children  ;  it  removes  them  to 
some  extent,  from  temptation,  and  aids  in  the  fulfillment  of  the  reasonable  ex- 
pectations of  parents,  that  their  children  will  be  at  home  at  the  appointed  hour. 
It  is  a  practical  lesson  in  punctuality,  which,  as  the  young  come  into  life,  will 
be  found  of  great  service  to  them,  it  may  be  ranked  with  behavior,  and  con- 
sidered as  among  those  things  which  constitute  the  character  of  a  good  child. 
It  is  especially  due  to  the  families  residing  in  the  vicinity  of  the  school.  Do 
what  you  may  to  prevent  annoyance,  it  is  scarcely  possible  for  a  large  school 
to  be  an  agreeable  neighbor  to  families  within  its  hearing.  They  are  subject 
to  its  petty  disturbances,  in  all  states  of  health  and  sickness,  in  trouble  and  in 
joy;  and  are  surely  entitled  to  the  relief  afforded  by  dismissal  and  sending  the 
children  to  their  homes.  Shouting,  screaming,  and  yelling,  should  be  prohibited, 
and  the  children  directed  to  go  away  in  a  quiet  and  orderly  manner.  Surely, 
every  principle  of  courtesy,  of  kindness,  and  good  neighborhood,  demands  it, 
and  should  not  demand  in  vain.  Who  has  not  waited  with  the  operations  of 
some  of  the  senses  suspended,  for  the  periodical  abatement  of  an  intolerable 
nuisance,  and/;&,  in  due  time,  all  the  joy  of  the  anticipated  relief  1 

"  Every  boy"  to  be  accountable  for  the  condition  of  the  floor  nearest  his  seat ;" 
that  is.  he  is  not  to  allow  any  thing,  whether  valuable  or  not,  to  lie  on  the  floor, 
and.  consequently,  every  thing  contemplated  in  the  preceding  rule,  as  far  as  any 
individual's  vicinity  is  concerned,  is  taken  care  ot.  and  all  worthless  articles 
likewise  removed.  This  making  committee-men  of  all  the  pupils  must  have  a 
very  good  effect  on  the  condition  of  the  school  room,  and  promote  that  neatness 
and  order,  which  are  above  recommended. 

The  next  rule  requires  the  pupils  to  be  particularly  quiet  and  diligent,  when 
the  teacher  is  called  out  of  the  room.  This  I  regard  as  of  very  great  conse- 
quence ;  for  it  involves  a  sentiment  of  magnanimity,  which  it  should  be  the  aim 
of  all  guardians  of  the  young  to  implant,  to  develop,  and  to  cherish.  Children 
often  infringe  school  regulations,  and  much  is  to  be  overlooked  in  them,  espe- 
cially when  at  a  very  tender  age.  Their  little  minds  are  scarcely  able  to  en- 
tertain, for  a  loner  time  together,  the  influence  of  many  rules,  except  under  the 
excitement  of  great  hope  or  fear;  and  when  the  teacher  is  present,  they  often 
unconsciously  offend,  and  should  be  judged  with  clemency;  but  when  left  as 
their  own  keepers,  they  should  be  early  made  to  understand  how  discourteous, 
how  dishonorable,  how  base,  it  is  to  transgress  the  laws  of  the  school.  Each 
should  vie  with  each  in  good  example,  and  thus  convince  the  instructor,  that 
confidence  reposed  in  them  can  never  be  abused. 

The  last  item,  under  the  head  of  Requisitions,  is  this:  "  To  promote,  as  far  as 
possible,  the  happiness,  comfort,  and  improvement,  of  others."  If  to  the  few 
exclusively  moral  and  religious  obligations,  those  of  courtesy  be  added,  this  re- 
quisition cannot  fail  of  being  observed.  I  say,  exclusively'  or  strictly  moral,  be- 
cause the  notion  of  courtesy  hardly  enters  the  mind,  when  we  speak  of  moral 
conduct ;  and  yet,  in  nearly  all  the  minor  points,  and  in  most  which  affect  the 
happiness  of  others,  in  our  ordinary  intercourse  with  them,  apart  from  the  trans- 
actions of  business,  it  is  courtesy  that  influences  us  most.  It  may  be  denomina- 
ted the  beiievotoice  of  brharior.  Aware  I  am  that  a  hypocrite  may  be  courteous; 
and  hypocrisy  in  a  child  is  inexpressibly  loathsome.  But  hypocrisy  is  not  a 
necessary  attendant  on  courtesy.  One  may  be  as  courteous  as  Lafayette,  and 
yet  as  pure  and  upright  as  Washington.  If,  then,  school-boys  are  kind-heartei 


442  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

and  friendly  to  their  mates,  and  evince  it  towards  them  in  theii  manners,  they 
will,  by  their  example  as  well  as  by  their  words,  fulfill  the  injunction  of  the  rule. 

The  "  Prohib'dwns"  are  in  the  same  spirit  as  the  requisitions,  and  seem  to  be 
much  the  same  in  substance,  although  thrown  into  a  negative  form  of  speech. 
The  first  is  in  these  words:  "  No  boy  to  throw  pens,  paper,  or  any  thing  what- 
ever, on  the  floor,  or  out  at  a  window  or  door."  This  refers  to  a  voluntary  act 
of  the  pupil,— the  rule  requiring  boys  to  pick  up  whatever  is  found  on  the  floor 
to  those  accidental  scatterings,  for  which  one  would  not  be  culpable.  The  pro- 
hibition is  founded  on  that  necessity  for  order  and  neatness,  which  must  ever  be 
maintained  in  a  well-conducted  institution,  to  whatever  object,  worthy  of  atten- 
tion, it  may  be  devoted.  And  this  is  urged  thus  repeatedly,  because  of  the  in- 
effable importance  of  first  s'eps.  BEGIN  RIGHT,  should  be  the  motto  and  rallying 
word  of  every  nursery  and  every  school. 

Spitting  on  tke  floor.  This  topic  I  would  willingly  avoid,  but  fidelity  to  my 
charge  forbids  it.  The  practice,  disgusting  as  it  is,  is  too  prevalent  in  many  ot 
the  families  that  furnish  pupils  for  your  schools,  to  be  overlooked,  or  winked 
out  of  sight;  and  if  the  children  could  carry  home  new  notions  in  regard  to  it, 
I  am  sure  you  would  have  furnished  a  good  lesson  to  their  parents. 

The  habits  of  large  portions  of  society  demand  a  reform.  It  is  futile  to  ex- 
pect any  general  amendment  in  those  who  have  grown  old  in  given  practices ; 
but  with  the  children,  those  whose  habits  are,  to  a  great  extent,  yet  unformed, 
much  may  be  done.  And  although  the  counteracting  influences  of  home  mili- 
tate against  your  wholesome  requisitions,  happy  is  it  for  us,  that  a  goodly  por- 
tion of  New  England  respect  for  teachers  still  remains,  to  give  authority  and 
weight  to  your  well-founded  and  reasonable  rules.  In  many,  if  not  in  most, 
families,  of  our  own  countrymen,  the  fact  that  the  '  school-ma'am'  said  so,  is 
sufficient  to  make  the  rule  promulgated  binding  on  the  parents ;  the  mother,  es- 
pecially, will  exert  her  authority  and  influence  on  the  teacher's  side  ;  and  if  the 
teacher  possesses  the  qualities  of  judgment,  discretion,  a  proper  consideration 
for  the  circumstances  of  the  families  to  which  her  children  belong,  to  guide  her 
in  the  adoption  of  her  regulations,  she  will  be  able  to  exert  a  power  for  good, 
within  the  sphere  of  her  daily  duties,  which  will  continue  to  be  felt  and  acknow- 
ledged, long  after  she  shall  have  rendered  her  final  account. 

Marking,  cutting,  scratching,  chalking,  on  the  school-house,  fence,  walls,  fyc.,  are 
forbidden,  as  connected  with  much  that  is  low,  corrupting,  and  injurious  to  the 
property  and  rights  of  others.  They  are  the  beginnings  in  that  course  of  de- 
basing follies  and  vices,  for  which  the  idle,  the  ignorant,  and  profane,  are  inpst 
remarkable ;  the  first  steps  in  that  course  of  degradation  and  impurity,  by  whi<:h 
the  community  is  disgraced,  and  the  streams  of  social  intercourse  polluted. 
You  mark  the  track  of  its  subjects  as  you  would  the  trail  of  a  savage  maraud- 
ing party,  by  its  foul  deeds  and  revolting  exploits;  as  you  would  the  path  of  the 
boa  constrictor,  in  its  filthy  slime,  which  tells  that  man's  deadly  enemy  is  abroad. 
And  we  are  called  on,  by  every  consideration  of  duty,  to  ourselves,  to  our  off- 
spring, and  to  our  race,  to  arm  against  this  tremendous  evil,  this  spiritual  bohon 
upas,  which  threatens  so  wide-spread  a  moral  death. 

We  cannot  escape  the  evidences  of  this,  which  assail  us  on  every  hand,  some- 
times on  the  very  walls  of  our  school-houses  and  churches  ;  but  especially  in 
places  removed  from  public  view,  where  the  most  schocking  obscenity  of  lan- 
guage is  displayed,  to  poison  the  youthful  mind,  illustrated  by  emblems,  which, 
in  the  words  of  one  who  deeply  mourns  with  us  over  the  existence  of  this  mon- 
strous evil,  this  desolating  curse,  "would  make  a  heathen  blush!'1  These  fright- 
ful assaults  on  decency  demand  reform.  The  deep,  low  murmur  of  insulted 
humanity  will,  I  doubt  not,  unless  this  evil  be  checked,  ascend  to  the  tribunal 
of  Eternal  Purity,  and  invoke  the  malediction  of  our  Judge,  which  may  yet  be 
displayed  in  the  blasting  of  our  fair  land,  like  another  Sodom !  To  avert  so 
deplorable  a  catastrophe,  let  the  thousands  of  the  good  and  virtuous  in  youi 
midst,  formed  into  one  indomitable  phalanx,  take  the  noble  stand  which  belongs 
to  them,  and  never  abandon  it,  till  the  enemy  be  forever  vanquished ;  forevei 
banished  from  the  now  polluted,  but  ever  to  be  cherished,  land  of  the  Pilgrims ! 

By  these  practices,  the  mind  acquires  such  a  hankering  after,  and  morbid 
relish  for  mischief,  that  no  tree,  or  shrubbery,  or  flowers,  or  public  embellish- 
ments, or  exhibitions  of  art  or  taste,  however  beautiful  or  expensive,  are  sacred 
from  the  marring  or  destructive  touch.  A  sensibility  to  the  beautiful  needs  to 
De  cultivated  among  us ;  and  mav  easily  be  done  with  the  young,  if  a  propei 


REGULATIONS  OF  CHAUNCY  HALL  SCHOOL.  443 

and  sincere  value  be  placed  upon  it  by  ourselves,  and  the  children  see  that  our 
admiration  is  a  reality.  It  exists  much  more  generally  in  continental  Europe, 
than  in  our  own  country.  There,  the  decorations  of  public  walks,  parks,  and 
gardens ;  the  galleries  of  the  arts,  and  the  magnificent  structures  which  adorn 
their  cities,  are  looked  at,  enjoyed,  admired,  by  all  classes ;  and  rarely,  indeed, 
is  the  Vandal  hand  of  mischief  or  destruction  found  to  desecrate  these  monu- 
ments of  a  nation's  refinement.  But  how  is  it  with  us  ?  No  sooner  has  the 
artist  given  the  last  touch  to  the  fluted  column,  than  some  barbarian  urchin 
chips  off  a  wedge  of  it,  in  wanton  sport.  How  often  is  our  indignation  excited 
by  the  painter's  boy,  who,  as  he  passes  the  newly-erected  dwelling  or  recently- 
painted  wall,  daubs  it  with  his  black  paint-brush,  for  yards  in  length,  as  he 
saunters  heedlessly  along.  And  what  more  common,  in  almost  all  public  build- 
ings, in  cupolas,  observatories,  &c.,  especially,  for  persons,  apprehensive  of  be- 
ing forgotten  by  posterity,  than  to  cut  out  their  names  or  their  initials,  as  if  this 
ft-ere  their  only  road  to  immortality ! 

The  use  of  knives  is  the  thing  next  prohibited.  In  mere  primary  schools,  this 
ale,  and  the  one  last  mentioned,  would  find,  perhaps,  little  to  do.  Some,  how- 
ever, there  are,  I  doubt  not,  even  in  such  schools,  who  suffer  from  the  too  free 
use  of  knives,  as  their  forms,  desks,  or  benches,  could  testify.  Nothing  is  more 
fascinating  to  a  boy  than  a  knife.  And  what  pleasure  can  there  be  in  possess- 
ing a  knite,  if  one  may  not  use  it?  Hence  the  trouble  occasioned  by  the  instru- 
ment. He  early  learns  in  imitation  of  his  elders  if  not  his  betters,  that  wood  was 
made  to  be  cut.  and  that  the  mission  of  a  knife  is.  to  do  the  work. 

This  topic  can  hardly  be  thought  out  of  place,  by  those  who  will  look  into 
the  recitation-rooms  of  almost  any  of  our  colleges,  where  many  a  dunce,  un- 
worthy of  any  degree,  soon,  by  his  dexterity  in  this  department,  lays  claim  to 
that  of  master  of 'the  art,— of  hacking ;  "and  has  his  claim  allowed.'" 

I  have  already  adverted  to  the  whittling  propensities  of  our  people ;  but,  with 
your  permission,  I  will  add  a  remark  or  two,  with  a  view  to  placing  this  naiion- 
al  peculiarity  in  a  stronger  light.  So  proverbial  have  we  become,  among  for- 
eigners, in  tliis  respect,  that,  if  a  Yankee  is  to  be  represented  on  the  stage,  you 
find  him  with  a  jackknife  in  one  hand,  and  in  the  other  a  huge  bit  of  pine  tim- 
ber, becoming  every  moment  smaller,  by  his  diligent  handiwork.  If  he  is  talk- 
ing, arguing,  or,  more  appropriately,  if  he  is  driving  a  bargain,  you  find  him 
plying  this,  his  wonted  trade,  with  all  the  energy  and  dexterity  of  a  beaver; 
and,  as  it  was  once  said  of  an  English  advocate,  that  he  could  never  plead, 
without  a  piece  of  packthread  in  his  hands,  so  the  Yankee  would  lose  half  his 
thrift,  unless  the  knife  and  wood  were  concomitants  of  his  chaffering.  But  the 
habit  is  of  evil  tendency,  and  ought  to  be  checked.  He  indulges  in  it  without 
discrimination,  upon  whatever  is  cut-able ;  and,  worse  than  the  white  ant,  which 
saws  down  and  carries  away  whole  human  habitations,  when  they  have  become 
deserted,  the  whittling  Yankee  would  hack  your  dwelling  in  present  occupation, 
until  he  rendered  you  houseless.  Let  the  mischief  be  checked  betimes ;  do  it 
at  school ;  showing,  at  the  same  time,  the  uselessness,  the  folly,  and  the  annoy- 
ing nature,  of  the  habit.  It  is  not  merely  at  home,  among  our  own  people,  that 
it  is  practiced  by  us ;  but  we  carry  it  with  us  wherever  we  go,  and,  even  among 
strangers,  establish  our  New  England  identity  by  it. 

The  spirit  of  the  school  rules  at  which  we  have  glanced,  should  be  carried 
into  every  family.  It  is  not  enough  to  present  the  summary  at  which  we  have 
arrived  ;  we  should  also  insist  on  minor  particulars,  by  words  and  actions,  not 
at  school  only,  but  at  home,  where  great  familiarity  produces  influences  unfa- 
vorable to  the  exercise  of  courtesy, — such  as  the  closing  of  all  doors,  especially 
in  cold  weather;  the  doing  of  it  gently,  with  out  slamming ;  moving  quietly  over 
the  floor ;  abstaining  from  shouting,  whistling,  boisterous  plays,  wearing  the 
hat  in  the  house,  <kc.  Just  in  proportion  as  such  habits  can  be  secured  by  your 
labors,  will  you  bring  down  upon  your  heads  the  blessing  of  mothers,  worn  by 
care,  by  sickness,  and  the  rudeness  of  their  offspring.  Powerless  themselves, 
to  produce  a  reformation,  theii  gratitude  to  you  will  be  sincere  and  heartfelt. 

Children  should  be  taught  to  take  leave  of  their  parents  and  friends,  on  going 
to  school,  and  to  offer  the  friendly  salute  and  kind  inquiry,  on  returning  home. 
Nothing  tends  more  to  strengthen  the  silken  cords  of  "family  affection,  than 
these  little  acts  of  courtesy;  and  their  influence  on  the  observer  is  highly  fa- 
vorable to  benevolent  feeling.  If  these  points  are  attended  to  in  our  families, 
they  will  not  fail  of  being  carried  into  company,  where  they  are  always  a  coin 
of  sterling  value. 


444  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


DEDICATORY  EXERCISES. 

The  opening  of  a  new  school-house  is  an  occasion  which  well  deserves 
a  public  and  joyful  commemoration.  Out  of  it  are  to  be  the  issues  of  life 
to  the  community  in  the  midst  of  which  it  stands,  and  like  the  river  seen 
in  the  vision  of  the  prophet,  which  nourished  all  along  its  banks  trees 
whose  leaves  were  for  the  healing  of  the  nations,  the  well-spring  of  all  its 
influences  should  be  a  spot  consecrated  by  religion.  In  prayer,  and  in 
praise  to  the  Giver  of  all  good,  and  the  Author  of  all  being, — in  song,  and 
hymn  and  anthem,  and  in  addresses,  from  those  whose  position  in  society 
will  command  the  highest  respect  for  any  object  in  whose  behalf  they 
may  speak,  and  in  the  presence  of  all  classes  of  the  community,  of  pupils, 
and  teachers,  of  fathers  and  mothers,  of  the  old  and  young, — the  school- 
house  should  be  set  apart  to  the  sacred  purpose  of  the  physical,  intellec- 
tual and  moral  culture  of  the  children  who  will  be  gathered  within  its 
walls.  We  rejoice  to  see  that  these  occasions  are  thus  improved,  and  that 
BO  many  of  our  most  distinguished  teachers,  scholars  and  statesmen  take 
part  in  the  exercises.  We  have  before  us  a  large  number  of  addresses,  at 
once  eloquent  and  practical,  which  have  been  delivered  at  the  opening  of 
new  school-houses,  and  we  shall  select  a  few,  not  for  their  superiority  to  the 
rest,  but  as  specimens  of  the  manner  in  which  topics  appropriate  to  the 
occasion  are  introduced,  and  as  fitting  testimony  to  the  importance  of 
SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

SCHOOL  CELEBRATION  AT  SALEM,  MASS. 

On  the  first  of  March,  1842,  the  occasion  of  occupying  several  new 
school-houses,  was  marked  by  a  variety  of  interesting  exercises,  an  ac- 
count of  which  will  be  found  in  the  Common  School  Journal  for  that  year. 
We  copy  the  addresses  of  Mr.  George  B.  Emerson,  and  of  G.  F.  Thayer. 

Mr.  Emerson  said, — 

"  I  congratulate  you,  my  young  friends,  on  this  happy  event.  This 
pleasant  day  is  like  a  smile  of  Heaven  upon  this  occasion ;  and  I  believe 
Heaven  always  smiles  on  events  like  this.  Many  of  us  whom  you  see 
here  have  come  from  a  distance,  on  the  invitation  of  your  excellent  friend 
the  Mayor,  to  show  the  interest  which  we  feel  in  you.  and  in  what  has  been 
done  here  for  your  improvement.  We  have  taken  great  pleasure  in  look- 
ing over  the  buildings  prepared  for  your  use,  the  admirable  arrangements 
and  apparatus,  so  much  superior  to  what  is  usually  enjoyed  by  children 
in  your  position.  We  have  been  pleased  to  hear  of  the  faithful  teachers 
that  are  provided  for  you,  and  the  excellent  plan  of  your  studies,  and  the 
excellent  regulations. 

Your  fathers  and  friends  have  spared  no  pains  to  furnish  you  with  all 
the  best  means  and  opportunities  for  learning.  They  now  look  to  you  to 
do  your  part.  All  that  they  have  done  will  be  of  no  avail,  unless  you 
are  excited  to  exert  yourselves, — to  prove  yourselves  worthy  of  these 
great  advantages. 

I  was  gratified,  in  looking  over  the  regulations,  to  see  the  course  marked 
out  for  you, — to  see  the  stress  laid  upon  the  great  substantiate  of  a  good 
education, — to  see  the  prominent  place  given  to  that  most  useful  art,  that 


DEDICATORY  EXERCISES  AT  SALEM.  445 

most  graceful  accomplishment,  reading.  You  cannot,  my  young  friends, 
realize  the  great  and  manifold  advantages  of  gaining,  now.  in  the  begin- 
ning of  your  life,  familiarly  and  perfectly,  the  single  power  of  reading 
distinctly,  naturally,  intelligently,  with  taste  and  interest, — and  of  acquir- 
ing a  /ore  for  reading.  There  is  no  situation  in  life,  in  which  it  will  not 
prove  to  you  a  source  of  the  purest  pleasure  and  highest  improvement 

For  many  years,  and  many  times  in  a  year.  I  have  passed  by  the  shop 
of  a  diligent,  industrious  mechanic,  whom  I  have  often  seen  busy  at  his 
trade,  with  his  arms  bare,  hard  at  work.  His  industry  and  steadiness 
have  been  successful,  and  he  has  gained  a  competency.  But  he  still  re- 
mains wisely  devoted  to  his  trade.  During  the  day,  you  may  see  him  at 
his  work,  or  chatting  with  his  neighbors.  At  night,  he  sits  down  in  his 
parlor,  by  his  quiet  fireside,  and  enjoys  the  company  of  his  friends.  And 
he  has  the  most  extraordinary  collection  of  friends  that  any  man  in  New 
England  can  boast  of.  William  H.  Prescott  goes  out  from  Boston,  and 
talks  with  him  about  Ferdinand  and  Isabella.  Washington  Irving  cornea 
from  New  York,  and  tells  him  the  story  of  the  wars  of  Grenada,  and  the 
adventurous  voyage  of  Columbus,  or  the  Legend  of  Sleepy  Hollow,  or 
the  tale  of  the  Broken  Heart.  George  Bancroft  sits  down  with  him,  and 
points  out  on  a  map,  the  colonies  and  settlements  of  America,  their  cir- 
cumstances and  fates,  and  gives  him  the  early  history  of  liberty.  Jared 
Sparks  comes  down  from  Cambridge,  and  reads  to  him  the  letters  of 
Washington,  and  makes  his  heart  glow  with  the  heroic  deeds  of  that  god- 
like man  for  the  cause  of  his  country.  Or.  if  he  is  in  the  mood  for  poetry, 
his  neighbor  Washington  Allston,  the  great  painter,  steps  in  and  tells 
him  a  story, — and  nobody  tells  a  story  so  well, — or  repeats  to  him  lines  of 
poetry.  Bryant  comes,  with  his  sweet  wood-notes,  which  he  learnt 
among  the  green  hills  of  Berkshire.  And  Richard  H.  Dana,  father  and 
son,  come,  the  one  to  repeat  grave,  heart-stirring  poetry,  the  other  to 
speak  of  his  two  years  before  the  mast.  Or.  if  this  mechanic  is  in  a  spec- 
ulative mood,  Professor  Hitchcock  comes  to  talk  to  him  of  all  the  changes 
that  have  befallen  the  soil  of  Massachusetts,  since  the  flood  and  before ; 
or  Professor  Espy  tries  to  show  him  how  to  predict  a  storm.  Nor  is  his 
acquaintance  confined  to  his  own  country.  In  his  graver  hours,  he  sends 
for  Sir  John  Herschel  from  across  the  ocean,  and  he  comes  and  sits  down 
and  discourses  eloquently  upon  the  wonders  of  the  vast  creation, — of  all 
the  worlds  that  are  poured  upon  our  sight  by  the  glory  of  a  starry  night 
Nor  is  it  across  the  stormy  ocean  of  blue  waves^alone  that  his  friends 
come  to  visit  him  ;  but  across  the  darker  and  wider  ocean  of  time,  come  the 
wise  and  the  good,  the  eloquent  and  the  witty,  and  sit  down  by  his  table, 
and  discourse  with  him  as  long  as  he  wishes  to  listen.  That  eloquent 
blind  old  man  of  Scio,  with  beard  descending  to  his  girdle,  still  blind,  but 
still  eloquent,  sits  down  with  him  ;  and,  as  he  sang  almost  three  thousand 
years  ago  among  the  Grecian  isles,  sings  the  war  of  Troy  or  the  wan- 
derings of  the  sage  Ulysses.  The  poet  of  the  human  heart  comes  from 
the  banks  of  Avon,  and  the  poet  of  Paradise  from  his  small  garden-house 
in  Westminster ;  Burns  from  his  cottage  on  the  Ayr,  and  Scott  from  his 
dwelling  by  the  Tweed ; — and,  any  time  these  three  years  past,  may 
have  been  seen  by  his  fireside  a  man  who  ought  to  be  a  hero  with  school- 
boys, for  no  one  ever  so  felt  for  them ;  a  man  whom  so  many  of  your 
neighbors  in  Boston  lately  strove  in  vain  to  see, — Charles  Dickens.  In 
the  midst  of  such  friends,  our  friend  the  leather-dresser  lives  a  happy  and 
respected  life,  not  less  respected,  and  far  more  happy,  than  if  an  uneasy 
ambition  had  made  him  a  representative  in  Congress,  or  a  governor  of  a 
State ;  and  the  more  respected  and  happy  that  he  disdains  not  to  labor 
daily  in  his  honorable  calling. 

My  young  friends,  this  is  no  fancy  sketch.  Many  who  hear  me  know 
as  well  as  1  do,  Thomas  Dowse,  the  leather-dresser  of  Cambridgeport, 


446  DEDICATORY  EXERCISES  AT  SALEM. 

and  many  have  seen  his  choice  and  beautiful  library.  But  I  suppoyo 
there  is  no  one  here  who  knows  a  neighbor  of  his,  who  had  in  his  early 
years  the  same  advantages,  but  who  did  not  improve  them  ; — who  never 
gained  this  love  of  reading,  and  who  now,  in  consequence,  instead  of  liv- 
ing this  happy  and  desirable  life,  wastes  his  evenings  in  low  company  at 
taverns,  or  dozes  them  away  by  his  own  fire.  Which  of  these  lives  will 
you  choose  to  lead  1  They  are  both  before  you. 

Some  of  you,  perhaps,  are  looking  forward  to  the  life  of  a  farmer, — a 
very  happy  life,  if  it  be  well  spent.  On  the  southern  side  of  a  gently 
sloping  hill  in  Natick,  not  far  from  the  place  where  may  be  still  standing 
the  last  wigwam  of  the  tribe  of  Indians  of  that  name,  in  a  comfortable 
farm-house,  lives  a  man  whom  I  sometimes  go  to  see.  I  find  him  with 
his  farmer's  frock  on,  sometimes  at  the  plough-tail,  sometimes  handling 
the  hoe  or  the  axe ;  and  I  never  shake  his  hand,  hardened  by  honorable 
toil,  without  wishing  that  I  could  harden  my  own  poor  hands  by  his  side 
in  the  same  respectable  employment.  I  go  out  to  look  with  him  at  trees, 
and  to  talk  about  them  ;  for  he  is  a  lover  of  trees,  and  so  am  I ;  and  he  is 
not  unwilling,  when  I  come,  to  leave  his  work  for  a  stroll  in  the  woods. 
He  long  ago  learnt  the  language  of  plants,  and  they  have  told  him  their 
history  and  their  uses.  He,  again,  is  a  reader,  and  has  collected  about 
him  a  set  of  friends,  not  so  numerous  as  our  friend  Dowse,  nor  of  just  the 
same  character,  but  a  goodly  number  of  very  entertaining  and  instructive 
ones  ;  and  he  finds  time  every  day  to  enjoy  their  company.  His  winter 
evenings  he  spends  with  them,  and  in  repeating  experiments  which  the 
chemists  and  philosophers  have  made.  He  leads  a  happy  life.  Time 
never  hangs  heavy  on  his  hands.  For  such  a  man  we  have  an  involun- 
tary respect. 

On  the  other  side  of  Boston,  down  by  the  coast,  lived,  a  few  years  ago, 
a  farmer  of  a  far  different  character.  He  had  been  what  is  called  fortu- 
nate in  business,  and  had  a  beautiful  farm  and  garden  in  the  country,  and 
a  house  in  town.  Chancing  to  pass  by  his  place,  some  four  or  five  years 
ago,  I  stopped  to  see  him.  And  I  could  not  but  congratulate  him  on  hav- 
ing so  delightful  a  place  to  spend  his  summers  in.  But  he  frankly  con- 
fessed that  he  was  heartily  tired  of  it,  and  that  he  longed  to  go  back  to 
Boston.  I  found  that  he  knew  nothing  about  his  trees,  of  which  he  had 
many  fine  ones, — for  it  was  an  old  place  he  had  bought, — nor  of  the  plants 
in  his  garden.  He  had  no  books,  and  no  taste  for  them.  His  time  hung 
like  a  burden  on  him.  He  enjoyed  neither  his  leisure  nor  his  wealth.  It 
would  have  been  a  blessing  to  him  if  he  could  have  been  obliged  to  ex- 
change places  with  his  hired  men,  and  dig  in  his  garden  for  his  gardener, 
or  plough  the  field  for  his  ploughman.  He  went  from  country  to  town 
and  from  town  to  country,  and  died,  at  last,  weary  and  sick  of  life.  Yet 
he  was  a  kind  man,  and  might  have  been  a  happy  one  but  for  a  single 
misfortune  ;  he  had  not.  learned  to  enjoy  reading.  The  love  of  reading  is 
a  blessing  in  any  pursuit,  in  any  course  of  life  ; — not  less  to  the  merchant 
and  sailor  than  to  the  mechanic  and  farmer.  What  was  it  but  a  love  of 
reading  which  made  of  a  merchant's  apprentice,  a  man  whom  many  of 
you  have  seen  and  all  have  heard  of,  the  truly  great  and  learned 
Bowditch? 

Our  friends  the  young  ladies  may  not  think  this  which  I  have  said 
exactly  suited  to  them.  But  to  you,  my  young  friends,  even  more  than 
to  your  brothers,  it  is  important  now  to  acquire  a  talent  for  reading  well, 
and  a  taste  for  reading.  I  say  more  important^  for,  looking  forward  to 
the  future,  you  will  need  it  more  than  they.  They  are  more  independent 
of  this  resource.  They  have  their  shops,  and  farms,  and  counting-houses 
to  go  to.  They  are  daily  on  change.  They  go  abroad  on  the  ocean. 
The  sphere  of  woman,  her  place  of  honor,  is  home,  her  own  fireside,  the 
cares  of  her  own  family.  A  well-educated  woman  is  a  sun  in  this  sphere, 


DEDICATORY  EXERCISES  AT  SALEM.  447 

•hedding  around  her  the  light  of  intelligence,  the  warmth  of  love  and 
happiness. 

And  by  a  well-educated  woman  I  do  not  mean  merely  one  who  has  ac- 
quired ancient,  and  Ibreign  languages,  or  curious  or  striking  accomplish- 
ments. I  mean  a  woman  who,  having  left  school  with  a  firmly-fixed  love 
of  reading,  has  employed  the  golden  leisure  of  her  youth  in  reading  the 
best  English  books,  such  as  shall  prepare  her  for  her  duties.  All  the  best 
books  ever  written  are  in  English,  either  original  or  translated ;  and  in 
this  richest  and  best  literature  of  the  world  she  may  find  enough  to  pre- 
pare her  for  all  the  duties  and  relations  of  life.  The  mere  talent  of  read- 
ing well,  simply,  gracefully, — what  a  beautiful  accomplishment  it  is  in 
woman !  How  many  weary  and  otherwise  heavy  hours  have  I  had 
charmed  into  pleasure  by  this  talent  in  a  female  friend.  But  I  speak  of 
the  higher  acquisition,  the  natural  and  usual  consequence  of  this,  a  taste 
for  reading.  This  will  give  a  woman  a  world  of  resources. 

It  gives  her  the  oracles  of  God.  These  will  be  ever  near  her ; — nearest 
to  her  hand  when  she  wakes,  and  last  from  her  hand  when  she  retires  to 
sleep.  And  what  stores  of  wisdom,  for  this  world  and  for  a  higher,  will 
she  gain  from  this  volume  !  This  will  enable  her  to  form  her  own  char- 
acter and  the  hearts  of  her  children.  Almost  every  distinguished  man 
has  confessed  his  obligations  to  his  mother.  To  her  is  committed  the 
whole  formation  of  the  character, — mind,  heart,  and  body,  at  the  most 
important  period  of  life.  How  necessary,  then,  is  it  that  she  should  pos- 
sess a  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  the  body  and  the  mind  !  and  how  can 
she  get  it  but  by  reading  ?  If  you  gain  only  this,  what  an  unspeakable 
blessing  will  your  education  be  to  you  ! 

I  need  not,  my  young  friends,  speak  of  the  other  acquisitions  you  may 
make. — of  writing,  which  places  friends  in  the  remotest  parts  of  the  world 
side  by  side, — or  of  calculation,  the  very  basis  of  justice  and  honesty. 

The  acquisitions  you  may  make  will  depend  chiefly  on  yourselves. 
You  will  find  your  teachers  ready  to  lead  you  on  to  higher  studies  when- 
ever you  are  prepared  to  go. 

These  excellent  establishments  are  emphatically  yours.  They  are 
raised  for  your  good ;  and,  as  we  your  seniors  pass  away, — and  in  a  few 
years  we  shall  have  passed, — these  buildings  will  become  your  property, 
and  your  children  will  fill  the  seats  you  now  occupy.  Consider  them 
yours,  then,  to  enjoy  and  profit  by,  but  not  yours  to  waste.  Let  it  be 
your  pride  to  preserve  them  uninjured,  unmarred  by  the  mischievous 
knives  and  pencils  of  vulgar  children.  Unite  for  this  purpose.  Consider 
an  injury  done  to  these  buildings  as  an  injury  done  to  yourselves. 

There  is  another  thing  which  will  depend  on  you,  of  more  importance 
than  any  I  have  spoken  of.  I  mean  the  tone  of  character  which  shall 
prevail  in  these  schools.  Your  teachers  will  be  happy  to  treat  you  as 
high-minded  and  generous  children.  Show  that  you  can  be  so  treated  ; 
that  you  are  such. 

Let  me  congratulate  you  upon  the  happy  auspices  of  the  name  of  him 
under  whom,  with  the  zealous  co-operation  of  enlightened  and  patriotic 
associates,  this  momentous  change  in  your  school  system  has  been 
effected,— -a  name  which  is  borne  by  the  oldest  and  best  school  in  New 
Hampshire,  and  by  one  of  the  oldest  and  best  in  Massachusetts.  It  will 
depend  upon  you,  my  friends,  to  make  the  schools  of  Salem,  equally,  or 
still  more  distinguished,  among  those  of  the  State." 

Mr.  Thayer  said. — 

Children  :  I  did  not  expect  that  I  should  have  the  privilege  of  address- 
ing you,  on  this  most  joyful  occasion;  for  it  was  not  till  I  met  your  re- 
spected Mayor,  an  hour  ago,  at  the  beautiful  school-house  we  have  just 


448  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

left,  that  I  received  an  invitation  to  do  so.  You  will  not,  therefore,  antici- 
pate a  studied  discourse,  or  any  thing  particularly  interesting.  Devoted, 
however,  as  my  life  is,  and  has  long  been,  to  the  instruction  and  guidance 
of  the  young  in  no  inconsiderable  numbers,  I  shall,  without  further  pre- 
face, imagine  myself  in  the  midst  of  my  own  school,  and  talk  familiarly  to 
you  as  I  would,  and  do,  to  them. 

And  allow  me  to  add  my  congratulations  to  those  of  your  other  friends 
for  the  ample,  beautiful,  and  convenient  arrangements  that  have  been 
made  for  you,  in  the  school-houses  of  this  city  ;  and  especially  in  the  new 
one  we  have  just  examined.  I  can  assure  you,  it  is  superior  in  almost 
every  respect  to  any  public  school-house  in  New  England,  if  not  in  the 
United  States.  It,  with  others  in  the  city,  has  cost  your  fathers  and 
friends  a  great  deal  of  money,  which  they  have  cheerfully  expended  as  a 
means  of  making  you  wise  and  good.  But  you  have  incurred  a  great 
debt  to  them,  which  you  can  never  repay  while  you  are  children,  but 
must  endeavor  to  do  it  to  your  children,  when  you  shall  become  men  and 
women,  and  take  the  place  of  your  parents  in  the  world.  But  before  that 
period,  you  can  do  something.  Now,  immediately  on  entering  upon  the 
enjoyment  of  the  precious  privileges  extended  to  you,  you  can  acknowl- 
edge the  debt,  evince  the  gratitude  you  feel,  not  by  words,  but  deeds ; — 
by,  (to  use  an  expression  well  understood  by  all  children.)  i  being  good? 
Yes, — by  '  being  good  and  doing  good;' — by  obedience  to  parents  and 
teachers  ;  by  kindness  to  brothers  and  sisters,  and  all  your  young  friends 
and  companions*,  by  fidelity  in  duty,  at  home  and  at  school ;  by  the  prac- 
tice of  honesty  and  truth  at  all  times  ;  by  refraining  from  the  use  of  pro- 
fane and  indecent  language ;  by  keeping  the  mind  and  heart  free  from 
every  thing  impure.  These  are  the  means  in  your  own  hands.  Fail  not 
to  use  them ;  and  although  they  will  in  fact  be  merely  an  acknowledg- 
ment of  your  obligation  for  the  boon  you  possess,  your  friends  will  con- 
sider themselves  well  repaid  for  all  they  have  done  for  you.  It  is  from 
such  conduct  that  the  teacher's,  as  well  as  the  father's,  richest  reward 
and  highest  satisfaction  are  derived.  To  see  the  beloved  objects  of  our 
care  and  instruction  appreciating  our  labors,  and  improving  in  all  that  is 
good  and  useful,  under  our  management,  affords  the  greatest  happiness, 
lightens  the  heavy  load  of  toil,  relieves  the  aching  head,  and  revives  the 
fainting  spirit. 

There  is,  however,  one  great  danger  to  which  you, — to  which  all  the 
young, — are  especially  exposed.  I  mean  the  influence  of  bad  example. 
Example  is  omnipotent.  Its  force  is  irresistible  to  most  minds.  We  are 
all  swayed  more  or  less,  by  others.  Others  are  swayed  by  us.  And  this 
process  is  continually  going  on,  even  though  we  are  entirely  unconscious 
of  it  ourselves.  Hence  we  see  the  importance  of  choosing  good  com- 
panions, and  flying  from  the  bad.  Unless  this  is  done,  it  will  be  in  vain 
for  your  friends  to  give  you  wise  counsel,  or  for  you  to  form  good  resolu- 
tions. '  Who  can  touch  pitch  and  be  clean  ?'  You  will  resemble  those 
with  whom  you  associate.  You  will  catch  their  words,  their  manners, 
their  habits.  Are  they  pure,  you  will  be  pure.  Are  they  depraved,  they 
will  corrupt  you.  Be  it  a  rule  with  you.  then,  to  avoid  those  who  are  ad- 
dicted to  practices  that  you  would  be  unwilling  your  most  respected 
friends  should  know,  and  regulate  your  own  conduct  by  the  same 
standard. 

I  would  particularly  caution  you  against  beginnings.  It  is  ihe  Jirst  step 
that  is  the  dangerous  one ;  since  it  is  obvious  that,  if  you  were  to  ascend 
the  highest  mountain,  it  could  only  be  done  by  a  step  at  a  time,  and  if  the 
first  were  not  taken,  the  summit  could  never  be  reached.  But,  one  suc- 
cessfully accomplished,  the  next  follows  as  a  matter  of  course.  And 
equally  and  fatally  sure  is  the  downward  track  to  crime  and  misery !  If 
we  suffer  ourselves  to  be  drawn  in  that  direction;  what  human  power  can 


DEDICATORY  EXERCISES  AT  SALEM.  449 

save  us  from  destruction  ?  This  danger,  too,  is  increased  by  the  feeling 
of  security  we  indulge,  when  we  say,  '  It  is  only  a  little  thing ;  we  shall 
never  commit  any  great  fault ;' — not  remembering  that  nothing  stands 
still  in  life,  in  character,  any  more  than  in  the  material  universe.  We 
must  be  going  forward  or  backward ;  up,  towards  improvement  and 
glory, — or  down,  towards  infamy  and  woe !  Every  thing  accumulates, 
according  to  its  kind  ;  though  it  begins  small,  like  the  snowball  you  hold  in 
your  hand,  it  becomes,  as  you  roll  it  on  the  ground  before  you.  larger  at 
every  revolution,  till,  at  last,  it  is  beyond  your  power  to  move  it  at  all. 

I  will  illustrate  this  by  a  sad  case  which  has  recently  occurred  in  Boa- 
ton.  But  first,  I  wish  to  interest  you  in  something  of  an  agreeable  nature, 
in  connection  with  the  faithful  performance  of  duty. 

I  have  spoken  of  some  things  that  you  should  do,  to  show  your  sense  of 
the  benefits  which  have  been  conferred  upon  you,  and  I  should  like  to 
dwell  on  each  one  of  them  separately;  but  I  shall  have  time  only  to  speak 
of  one.  It  is,  however,  among  the  most  important  I  allude  to  speaking 
tlie  truth, — the  most  substantial  foundation  of  moral  character.  It  has  in- 
numerable advantages,  one  of  which  is  strikingly  exhibited  in  the  fol- 
lowing story :  — 

Petrarch,  an  eminent  Italian  poet,  who  lived  about  five  hundred  years 
ago.  secured  the  confidence  and  friendship  of  Cardinal  Colonna,  in  whose 
family  he  resided  in  his  youth,  by  his  candor  and  strict  regard  to  truth. 

A  violent  quarrel  had  occurred  in  the  family  of  this  nobleman,  which 
was  carried  so  far,  that  resort  was  had  to  arms.  The  cardinal  wished  to 
know  the  foundation  of  the  affair;  and,  calling  all  his  people  before  him, 
he  required  each  one  to  bind  himself  by  a  solemn  oath,  on  the  Gospels,  to 
declare  the  whole  truth.  None  were  exempt.  Even  the  cardinal's 
brother  submitted  to  it.  Petrarch,  in  his  turn,  presenting  himself  to  take 
the  oath,  the  cardinal  closed  the  book,  and  said,  ;  As  for  you,  Petrarch, 
your  WORD  is  sufficient." 

What  more  delightful  reward  could  have  been  presented  to  the  feelings 
of  the  noble  youth  than  this,  from  his  friend,  his  master,  and  one  of  the 
highest  dignitaries  of  the  church?  Nothing  but  the  peaceful  whispers  of 
his  own  conscience,  or  the  approbation  of  his  Maker,  could  have  giveft 
him  more  heart-felt  satisfaction.  Who  among  you  would  not  be  a 
Petrarch  ?  and,  in  this  respect,  which  of  you  could  not  ? 

While,  then,  I  would  hold  up  for  imitation  this  beautiful  example,  I 
would  present  a  contrast  as  a  warning  to  you. 

There  is  now  confined  in  the  Boston  jail  a  b6y  of  fourteen  years  of  age, 
who,  for  the  previous  six  years,  had  been  sinking  deeper  and  deeper  into 
vice  and  crime,  until  last  October,  when  he  was  convicted,  and  sentenced 
to  two  years'  confinement  within  the  cold  damp  cell  of  a  gloomy  prisonj 
for  aggravated  theft.  In  his  own  written  account  of  his  life,  which  I  have 
eeen.  he  says  that  he  began  his  wretched  course  by  playing  truaht  from 
school.  His  second  step  was  lying,  to  conceal  it.  *  Idle,  and  destitute  of 
any  fixed  purpose,  he  fell  in  company  with  others,  guilty  like  himself,  of 
whom  he  learned  to  steal,  and  to  use  indecent  and  profane  language.  He 
Bought  the  worst  boys  he  could  find.  He  became  a  gambler,  a  frequenter 
of  the  circus  and  the  theatre,  and  engaged  in  various  other  corrupt  and 
sinful  practices.  At  length,  becoming  bold  in  his  dishonesty,  he  robbed 
the  post-office  of  letters  containing  very  considerable  sums  of  money,  and 
was  soon  detected  and  condemned.  If  you  were  to  visit  that  abode  of 
misery,  you  might  often  see  the  boy's  broken-hearted  mother,  weeping, 
and  sobbing,  and  groaning,  at  the  iron  grating  of  his  solitary  cell,  as  ii 
she  would  sink  on  the  flinty  floor,  and  die  !  k  And  all  this,'  (to  use  the 
boy's  own  words.)  'comes  from  playing  truant!' 

Look,  then,  my  young  friends,  on  these  two  pictures. — both  taken  from 
life. — and  tell  me  which  you  like  best ;  and  which  of  the  two  characters 

29 


450  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

you  propose  to  imitate.  Will  you  be  young  Petrarchs,  or  will  you  a.dopt 
the  course  of  the  unfortunate  boy  in  Boston  jail  ?  They  are  both  before 
you.  If  you  would  be  like  the  former,  begin  right.  Resist  temptation 
to  wrong-doing,  with  all  your  might.  Let  no  one  entice  you  from  the 
way  which  conscience  points  out. 

This  precept  is  applicable  to  all, — to  both  sexes  and  every  age.  Let 
me,  then,  I  pray  you,  when  I  shall  inquire,  hereafter,  respecting  the  habits 
and  characters  of  the  children  of  the  Public  Schools  of  Salem,  have  the 
satisfaction  to  hear,  that  the  instructions  of  this  occasion  made  an  impres- 
sion on  their  minds  favorable  to  truth  and  duty,  which  subsequent  time 
could  never  efface. 


DEDICATION  OF  THE  NEW  SCHOOL-HOUSE  IN  PA WTUCKET,  OCTOBER  31,  1846 
ADDRESS  OF  PRESIDENT  WAYLAND,  OF  BROWN  UNIVERSITY. 

LADIES  AND  GENTLEMEN, 

There  is  something  deeply  interesting,  both  to  the  philanthropist  and 
to  the  political  economist,  in  the  appearance  of  such  a  village  as  this,  the 
abode  of  wealth,  civilization  and  refinement.  We  find  ourselves,  as  we 
look  upon  it,  unconsciously  reverting  to  the  period,  not  very  remote,  when 
this  whole  region  was  a  desert.  Thick  forests  covered  all  these  hills,  and 
pressed  down  even  to  the  water's  brink.  This  river  rushed  over  its  rocky 
bed,  or  tumbled  down  its  precipitous  ledges,  unnoticed  by  the  eye  of 
civilized  man.  A  few  savages  from  time  to  time,  erected  their  transient 
wigwams  upon  its  banks,  as  the  season  of  hunting  or  fishing  attracted 
them,  and  they  alone  disputed  the  claim  of  the  beasts  of  the  forest  to  this 
beautiful  domain.  The  products  of  all  this  region  were  a  scanty  and  pre- 
carious pasturage  for  game,  a  few  canoe  loads  of  fish,  and,  it  may  be.  a 
few  hundred  pounds  of  venison.  Whatever  else  the  earth  produced,  fell 
and  perished  ungathered.  Age  after  age,  beheld  this  annual  waste. 
Here  was  the  earth  with  all  its  capabilities.  Here  were  the  waters  with 
all  their  unexpended  powers.  But  here  was  no  man  whose  intellect  had 
been  instructed  in  the  laws  of  nature.  Here  was  neither  continuous  in- 
dustry, nor  even  frugal  forethought.  Hence  there  could  be  no  progress, 
All  things  continued  as  they  were  from  the  beginning  of  the  creation. 

About  two  hundred  years  since,  the  first  civilized  man  cast  his  eyes 
over  this  beautiful  landscape.  He  brought  with  him  the  arts  arid  the 
science  of  the  older  world,  and  a  new  era  commenced  in  the  history  of 
that  part  of  our  country,  since  known  as  Rhode  Island.  The  labors  of 
agriculture  soon  began  to  work  their  magic  changes.  The  forest  was 
felled,  the  soil  was  tilled,  and,  in  the  place  of  the  precarious  products  of 
the  uncultivated  field,  rich  harvests  of  grain  waved  over  these  plains. 
The  beasts  of  the  forest  retired,  and  the  animals  given  by  the  Creator 
to  aid  us  in  our  toil,  occupied  their  place.  Instead  of  the  graceful  deer, 
the  clumsy  moose,  the  prowling  wolf  and  the  ravenous  panther,  these 
fields  were  covered  with  the  lowing  herds,  the  bleating  sheep,  the  labori- 
ous ox,  and  the  horse,  in  all  latitudes  the  faithful  servant  of  man. 

This  was  a  great  and  glorious  transformation.  From  the  moment  that 
a  civilized  man  first  thrust  his  spade  into  this  earth,  or  here  yoked  his 
oxen  to  the  plough,  the  sleep  of  ages  was  broken,  and  the  reign  of  pro- 
gress commenced.  From  this  moment  the  darkness  had  begun  to  pass 
away,  and  the  sun  was  dispersing  that  night,  which,  since  the  deluge, 
ad  brooded  over  this  land.  From  that  auspicious  beginning,  all  the 
means  of  happiness  that  the  eye  beholds,  have  proceeded.  Acre  after 


DEDICATORY  EXERCISES  AT  NORTH  PROVIDENCE.  451 

acre  has  been  reclaimed  from  barrenness.  Every  variety  of  product  has 
been  tried,  in  order  to  ascertain  which  would  be  produced  by  the  earth 
most  kindly.  The  smoky  wigwam  gave  place  to  the  log  house,  and  this 
in  turn,  to  the  convenient  farm-house,  or  the  stately  mansion.  And  thug 
another  portion  of  the  earth  was  added  to  the  area  of  Anglo-Saxon  civili- 
zation. 

But  still  the  river,  to  which  all  the  distinctive  prosperity  of  this  region 
owes  its  origin,  ran.  as  it  ever  had  ran,  to  utter  waste.  This  mighty  and 
most  productive  means  of  wealth,  remained  wholly  unemployed.  A 
mine  richer  than  that  of  gold,  was  yet  unwrought.  It  was  a  mine  of  me- 
chanical power,  instead  of  metallic  treasure,  and  let  me  add,  a  mine  of 
incalculably  greater  value.  At  last  it  was  discovered,  that  this  little 
river,  falling  over  its  innumerable  ledges,  could  do  the  labor  of  many 
thousand  men.  An  accomplished  manufacturer,*  from  England,  whose 
name  has  made  this  village  one  of  the  most  renowned  spots  in  our  coun- 
try, came  among  us,  and  applied  the  power  of  this  water-fall  to  the  spin- 
ning and  weaving  of  cotton.  Who  can  measure  the  results  of  this  one 
grand  experiment?  We  hear  of  battles  and  sieges,  of  the  defeat  of 
armies,  the  capture  of  towns,  the  destruction  of  fleets;  but  what  achieve- 
ment of  war  was  ever  of  such  importance  to  a  people,  as  that  which  was 
accomplished,  when  that  wheel  made  its  first  revolution,  and  the  first 
thread  of  cotton  was  here,  in  this  very  village,  spun  by  water  power  ? 
From  this  moment  may  be  dated  the  commencement  of  general  manu- 
factures in  this  country,  and  that  of  cotton  in  particular.  From  that  mo- 
ment, every  fall  of  water  throughout  our  land  became  a  most  valuable 
possession.  From  that  moment,  this  noble  natural  agent  began,  every- 
where, to  fabricate  garments  for  our  people.  From  that  moment  all  the 
labor,  of  every  age,  throughout  New  England,  could  be  profitably  em- 
ployed. From  that  moment  it  was  certain  that  capital  to  any  amount 
could  readily  find  investment.  The  rich  proceeds  of  one  manufactory 
laid  the  foundations  of  a  similar  one  by  the  side  of  it.  As  one  branch 
of  manufactures  began  to  supply  the  demand  of  the  nation,  another 
branch  was  established.  Thus  we  are  every  year  adding  millions  to  this 
form  of  investment,  and  employing  additional  thousands  of  hands  in  this 
mode  of  industry.  We  are  entering  into  generous  and  successful  rivalry 
with  the  nations  of  Europe.  Already  many  of  our  cottons  are  preferred 
to  theirs  in  the  markets  of  the  world.  Soon,  other  branches  of  our  man- 
ufactures will  be  brought  to  equal  perfection.  Nay,  I  anticipate  the 
time  when  we,  in  this  country,  under  a  system  of  generous  reciprocity, 
shall  supply  the  continent  and  England  herself  with  all  those  articles, 
for  the  fabrication  of  which  we  have  special  advantages. 

But  this  chain  of  events  by  no  means  ceases  here.  Year  after  year 
every  branch  of  manufactures  is  increasing  its  means,  and  distributing 
the  proceeds  of  its  labor  over  every  part  of  our  land.  Wherever  a  fabric 
is  sent,  it  is  exchanged,  in  some  form,  for  the  productions  of  that  region 
in  which  it  is  consumed.  The  common  means  for  accomplishing  these 
mutual  and  increasing  exchanges,  soon  became  utterly  inadequate;  more 
efficient  modes  of  transportation  must,  from  necessity,  be  invented.  The 
business  of  the  country  could  not  be  carried  on  without  them.  Our  man- 
ufacturing prosperity,  while  it  creates  the  necessity  for  internal  improve- 
ments, also  supplies  the  means  for  constructing  them.  The  annual  gains 
of  manufacturing"  capital  are  next  invested  in  canals  and  railroads,  and 
thus  the  means  of  transporting  these  fabrics  at  the  least  cost,  are  at  once 

*  Mr.  Slater  has  even  a  higher  claim  to  the  gratitude  and  veneration  of  this  country,  than 
that  which  he  derives  from  the  introduction  01"  the  cotton  manufacture.  He  established  in 
Pawtucket  the  first  SUNDAY  SCHOOL  that  was  ever  opened  in  America;  and  for  some  time 
sustained  it  wholly  at  h:s  own  expense. 


452  BCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

provided.  Here  is,  then,  another  mode  created,  of  advantageous  invest- 
ment. By  means  of  internal  improvement,  the  market  of  every  producer 
is  indefinitely  extended,  he  also  receives  a  fair  remuneration  for  this  very 
investment,  by  which  his  market  is  thus  extended,  and,  at  the  same  time 
the  consumer  receives  whatever  he  purchases  at  a  cheaper  rate  and  in 
greater  perfection.  Thus,  as  we  always  observe,  under  the  government 
of  God.  a  real  benefit  to  one  is  a  benefit  to  all.  And  hence  we  learn, 
that  to  attempt  to  secure  exclusive  advantages  to  ourselves,  is  always 
abor  lost.  Nothing  can  be  a  real  benefit  to  us,  that  is  not  a  real  benefit 
also  to  our  neighbors. 

And  the  illustration  of  all  that  I  have  said,  is  manifest  every  where 
around  us.  We  behold  how  every  other  art  has  clustered  around  the  art 
of  transforming  cotton  into  clothing.  We  see  how  one  establishment  has 
been  the  seed  that  has  produced  a  multitude  of  those  that  resemble  it. 
You  see  how  manufactures  have  given  rise  to  internal  improvements ; 
how  the  spindle  has  cut  through  the  mountains,  and  filled  up  the  valleys 
and  graded  the  road,  and  stretched  from  city  to  city  the  iron  rail.  You 
see  how  loth  these  inseparable  friends  are  to  be  parted  from  each  other. 
The  region  of  manufactures  is  the  region  of  railroads.  And  you  per- 
ceive, as  the  iron  road  that  passes  through  this  village,  pursues  its  way 
toward  the  west,  how  it  winds  along  through  the  valley  of  the  Black- 
stone,  greeting  every  village  and  waking  every  hamlet  to  renewed  ac- 
tivity. 

All  this  you  readily  perceive.  You  must  be  astonished  yourselves, 
when  you  reflect  upon  the  amount  of  capital  which  a  single  life  time  has 
added  to  the  resources  of  this  village,  and  the  country  in  its  immediate 
vicinity.  But  while  we  exult  in  the  large  measure  of  prosperity  with 
which  a  bountiful  Providence  has  endowed  us,  it  may  not  be  uninstruc- 
tive  to  inquire,  in  what  ways  have  these  blessings  been  improved?  Has 
it  ever  occurred  to  you,  that  almost  all  this  capital  has  been  invested  in 
procuring  for  ourselves,  the  means  of  physical  happiness?  We  erect 
nouses,  and  we  render  them  spacious,  warm,  and  commodious.  We  furnish 
them  with  every  means  of  physical  luxury.  We  spread  carpets  for  our 
feet.  We  stretch  ourselves  on  couches  of  down.  We  temper  the  at- 
mosphere at  our  will.  We  clothe  ourselves  with  vestments  wrought  in 
every  clime,  and  by  people  of  every  hue  and  language.  We  vary  our 
dress  with  every  fashion.  We  load  our  tables  with  luxuries  imported 
f^vn  the  tropics  or  the  poles;  we  vex  sea  and  land  for  new  viands  to  stim- 
ulate our  palates,  already  saturated  with  abundance.  We  please  our- 
selves with  every  form  ot  equipage,  and  tax  the  ingenuity  of  every  arti- 
san, that  we  may  be  enabled  to  roll  from  place  to  place  without  the  fa- 
tigue of  motion.  But  why  need  I  proceed  to  specify  any  further.  We 
all  perceive,  on  the  least  reflection,  that  it  is  in  expenditures  of  this  kind, 
that  almost  all  the  expenses  of  living  are  incurred. 

But  if  this  be  true,  must  there  not  be  some  grievous  error  in  the  prin- 
ciples of  our  conduct?  Can  this  be  a  wise  mode  of  expenditure  for  intel- 
ligent and  immortal  beings?  In  all  that  I  have  here  recited,  is  there  any 
thing  in  which,  on  principle,  we  have  excelled,  (  excuse  the  homeliness  of 
the  illustration,)  the  Beaver  that  once  inhabited  these  streams?  The 
thoughtful  animal  expended  all  the  treasures  of  his  intellect  or  instinct, 
in  rendering  his  dwelling  commodious;  and  he  accomplished  it.  Have  we 
not  done  precisely  the  same  thing?  Has  not  all  the  expenditure  of 
which  I  have  spoken,  been  consumed  for  the  convenience  of  the  physical, 
the  perishable,  the  material  ?  Might  not  all  this  have  been  done,  had  we 
no  consciousness  of  an  immortal  spirit? 

But  God  has  made  us  immortal.  He  has  given  to  us  a  spiritual  exist- 
ence. Each  one  of  us  possesses  a  priceless  mind.  We  are  endowed  with 
reason  to  discover  truth,  imagination  to  form  conceptions  of  the  beautiful 


DEDICATORY  EXERCISES  AT  NORTH  PROVIDENCE.        453 

and  the  grand,  taste  to  delight  in  all  that  is  lovely  or  glorious,  and  con- 
science by  which  we  are  allied  to  God  the  Father  of  all,  and  the  holy 
and  blessed  throughout  the  universe.  It  is  by  the  possession  of  these 
powers,  that  man  claims  precedence  over  the  brute.  It  is  by  the  cultiva- 
tion of  these,  that  we  have  become  more  powerful  than  the  savage,  who 
once  dwelt  where  we  now  dwell.  It  is  by  the  use  of  these  powers,  that 
all  the  wonders  of  art  have  been  wrought,  which  we  now  behold  around 
us.  If  such  be  the  fact,  it  must  certainly  be  true  that  this,  the  spiritual 
part  of  man,  is  by  far  the  most  deserving  of  attention,  and  that,  in  the 
cultivation  of  this  portion  of  our  nature,  we  can  in  the  most  appropriate 
manner  invest  our  capital. 

But  while  this  is  evident  does  our  practice  correspond  with  these  well 
established  principles  ?  We  liberally  expend  our  substance  to  preserve 
our  bodies  in  health,  and  to  cultivate  in  our  children  the  full  development 
of  every  power,  and  the  outward  manifestation  of  every  grace.  But  do 
we  bestow  proportionate  labor  in  developing  every  spiritual  faculty,  and 
protecting  the  immortal  part  from  the  spreading  contagion  of  evil  exam- 
ple, and  the  wasting  results  of  evil  habit  ?  We  expend  whatever  is  ne- 
cessary in  furnishing  our  tables  with  every  thing  that  may  be  desired  for 
the  sustentation  of  iSe  body.  W'here  is  there  the  man  among  us,  who 
would  not  blush  to  be  considered  an  illiberal  provider  for  the  wants  of  his 
household  ?  but  is  any  man  ashamed  to  confess,  that  he  has  made  no  pro- 
vision for  the  spiritual  appetites  of  his  children?  Who  of  us  would  per- 
mit tainted  or  unwholesome  food  to  be  brought  into  his  house,  or  placed 
upon  his  table  ?  and  yet  is  not  intellectual  food  of  the  most  questionable 
character,  daily  read  in  the  houses  of  many  of  our  most  excellent  citi- 
zens ?  Who  is  ashamed  to  declare,  that  he  has  no  library  in  his  house, 
or  that,  he  has  never  taken  the  pains  to  inquire  whether  the  books  that 
are  read  by  his  family,  are  useful  or  deleterious  ? 

But  this  is  not  all.  We  know  that  the  youthful  mind  is  destitute  of 
knowledge,  and  that  it  is  strongly  predisposed  to  the  formation  of  im- 
proper habits.  Every  one  knows  that  a  child  needs  instruction,  and  that 
the  labor  of  giving  it  instruction  should  be  devolved  upon  those  only, 
who  are  intellectually  and  morally  qualified  to  impart  it.  The  parent 
can  rarely  do  this  for  himself.  The  principle  of  division  of  labor  teaches 
us,  that  it  can  be  much  more  successfully  done  by  some  one  who  will  de- 
vote his  whole  attention  to  it.  But,  now,  let  us  look  over  our  own  neigh- 
borhoods, and  observe  how  very  small,  until  quite  lately,  has  been  the 
amount  of  capital  devoted  to  the  education  of  our  youth.  Compare  it 
with  almost  every  other  form  of  investment,  and  you  at  once  perceive 
how  small  is  its  relative  amount.  Take,  for  instance,  the  railroad  which 
passes  within  a  stone's  throw  of  the  place  in  which  we  are  assembled. 
Many  of  you  and  your  fellow  citizens,  subscribed  for  its  stock.  You  did 
wisely.  It  will,  I  presume,  raise  the  value  of  every  form  of  property 
here.  Land  will  sell  for  a  better  price.  You  will  thus  become  directly 
connected  with  the  whole  of  the  South,  and  with  the  whole  of  the  East 
and  West;  and  you  can,  at  very  little  expense  of  transportation,  ex- 
change productions  with  the  remotest  extremities  of  our  country.  This 
is  certainly  an  improvement  upon  your  former  means  of  communication, 
and  you  are  willing  to  invest  your  capital  in  the  effort  to  secure  it.  But 
suppose  you  had  been  assessed  to  an  equal  amount,  in  order  to  provide 
the  means  of  education ;  suppose  you  had  been  called  upon  to  subscribe 
the  same  sum  in  aid  of  an  effort  to  give  to  the  youth  of  this  village  the 
best  education  in  New  England,  would  you  not  have  considered  the 
demand  excessive  ?  Would  you  have  believed  that  you  could  possibly 
have  paid  it  ?  Yet,  1  ask,  is  not  the  education  of  your  children  as  impor- 
tant an  object  as  the  improvement  of  your  means  of  transportation? 
Suppose  you  were  to  unite  in  such  an  effort,  would  not  the  amount  of 


454  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

which  I  have  spoken  be  sufficient  to  accomplish  the  result,  the  giving  to 
your  children  the  best  education  in  New  England.  Is  it  not  evident,  then, 
that  we  bestow  upon  the  means  of  education,  an  attention  very  much 
less  than  they  deserve  ? 

I  have  spoken  in  this  manner  as  though  I  were  addressing  you  in  par- 
ticular. But  this  is  not  what  I  intend.  I  speak  of  the  amount  of  atten- 
tion which,  until  lately,  has  been  given  to  this  subject,  here  in  this  State, 
and  throughout  New  England.  I  know  as  well  as  you,  that  you  have 
not  been  specially  behind  hand  in  this  matter.  You  have  always  been 
prepared  to  do  your  part,  in  every  effort  to  improve  the  condition  of 
education  amongst  us.  I  have,  however,  alluded  to  these  facts  and  have 
presented  these  parallels,  that  you  maybe  enabled  to  judge  of  the  degree 
in  which  we  have  erred,  in  estimating  the  proportion  of  our  income 
which  is  due  to  the  cause  of  education. 

1  greatly  rejoice,  however,  that  indications  of  decided  improvement  in 
this  respect,  are  visible  every  where  around  us.  In  Massachusetts,  for 
several  years  past,  no  subject  has  appealed  with  greater  success  to  the 
enlightened  public  opinion  of  her  citizens.  One  of  her  most  gifted  and 
eloquent  sons  has  consecrated  his  life  to  this  noble  cause,  and  the  results 
of  his  efforts  have  become  every  where  apparent.  Nor  have  we  of  Rhode 
Island  been  wholly  wanting  to  ourselves  in  this  good  work.  Although  for 
many  years  the  people  were  indifferent  to  their  true  interests  in  this  re- 
spect, yet,  when  they  came  to  its  importance,  they  pursued  it  with  a 
manly  steadfastness  and  a  far-seeing  liberality,  which  would  do  honor  to 
any  community  in  our  country.  The  school  system  of  Providence  is  ac- 
knowledged to  be  second  to  none  in  the  land,  in  excellence  and  efficiency. 
The  people  in  all  our  districts,  agricultural  and  manufacturing,  are  seek- 
ing to  know  the  best  means  of  promoting  the  thorough  education  of  their 
children;  they  are  building  school-houses  on  the  best  models  that  can  be 
presented  to  them,  and  are  raising  money,  with  annually  increasing  lib- 
erality, for  the  purpose  of  accomplishing  these  results  most  perfectly. 

It  gives  me  great  pleasure.  Ladies  and  Gentlemen  of  Pawtucket,  to  be 
a  witness  to  the  enlightened  zeal  which  you  have  manifested  on  this  sub- 
ject. From  this  village,  first  went  forth  the  impulse  which  called  into 
existence  the  most  important  manufacturing  interest  in  this  country.  It 
is  meet  that  as  you  have  taught  us  how  to  supply  our  external,  you  should 
teach  us  how  to  supply  our  internal  wants.  You  have  taught  us  how 
we  may  clothe  our  bodies,  it  is  well  that  you  should  teach  us  how  to  cul- 
tivate, and  strengthen,  and  ennoble  our  minds.  You  have  intended  to 
render  this  school-house  a  model  for  your  fellow  citizens  throughout  the 
State.  It  is  a  noble  and  patriotic  emulation,  and  we  thank  you  for  it. 
We  hope  that  every  village  and  district  in  the  State  will  imitate  your 
example. 

I  am  delighted  to  observe  that,  in  all  your  arrangements,  you  have  in 
this  matter  acted  with  wise  and  thoughtlul  liberality.  Instead  of  put- 
ting your  school-house  out  of  sight,  in  an  inconvenient  and  unhealri  ~r 
pucuuon,  you  have  placed  it  on  an  eminence,  in  a  desirable  locality,  and 
nave  determined  to  surround  it  with  ample  play-grounds.  The  building 
itself  is  exceedingly  pleasing  in  its  external  proportions,  and  forms  one  of 
the  most  agreeable  ornaments  of  your  village.  You  thus  associate  edu- 
cation in  the  mind  of  the  young  with  every  thing  gladsome  and  alluring; 
while,  at  the  same  time,  you  testify  to  your  children,  the  importance  which 
you  attach  to  their  intellectual  cultivation. 

The  apartments  of  your  house  are  large  and  convenient.  The  desks 
are  constructed  upon  the  most  improved  models,  and  the  seats  seem  to  me 
durable  and  neat,  and,  at  the  same  time,  comfortable  to  the  pupil.  Every 
thing  in  the  school-rooms  has  the  air  of  finish  and  completeness.  The 
arrangements  for  illustration,  by  the  blackboards3  are,  and  I  presume 


DEDICATORY  EXERCISES  AT  NORTH  PROVIDENCE.  455 

that  those  by  every  other  means  will  be.  ample.  With  such  instructors 
as  you  have  appointed,  seconded  by  your  own  zealous  and  untiring  efforts, 
I  have  no  doubt  that  this  school  will  be  all  that  you  desire  to  make  it  one 
of  the  first  model  schools  of  New  England. 

But  I  perceive  that  your  forethought  has  gone  farther.  You  have  de- 
termined that  other  habits,  besides  those  of  the  intellect,  shall  here  receive 
their  appropriate  share  of  attention.  You  have  provided  for  each  scholar 
an  exclusive  place  for  his  own  hat  and  outer  clothing.  You  have  fur- 
nished your  apartments  with  convenient  wash-rooms,  an  improvemen 
which  I  do  not  remember  to  have  seen  in  any  other  school-house.  Thusf 
you  have  made  it  necessary  for  each  scholar  to  cultivate  habits  of  order 
and  cleanliness.  In  all  these  respects,  I  do  not  see  how  your  arrange- 
ments could  be  better  made,  or  how  any  thing  else  could  reasonably  be 
desired. 

How  delightful  an  object  of  contemplation  is  such  a  school  as  this, 
when  faithfully  and  zealously  conducted.  Here  the  slumbering  germs  of 
intellect  will  be  quickened  into  life.  Here  talent,  that  would  otherwise 
become  torpid  from  inaction,  will  be  placed  upon  the  course  of  indefinite 
improvement.  Here,  the  rough  and  uncultivated,  arrested  by  the  charms 
of  knowledge,  and  allured  by  the  accents  of  kindness,  will  lay  aside  their 
harshness,  and  assume  the  manners  of  refinement  and  good  breeding. 
From  hence  the  lessons  of  knowledge  and  the  habits  of  order  will  be  car- 
ried to  many  a  family,  and  they  will  there  awaken  a  whole  circle  to  a 
higher  and  purer  life.  In  a  word,  take  the  five  hundred  children,  whom 
this  building  will  accommodate,  and  suppose  them  destitute  of  the  know- 
ledge, the  discipline  and  the  manners,  which  this  school  will  confer ;  trace 
their  course  through  life  in  all  its  vicissitudes,  and  observe  the  station 
which  each  of  them  must  occupy  ;  and  then,  suppose  these  five  hundred 
children  imbued  with  the  knowledge  which  you  here  are  prepared  to  give, 
and  the  habits  which  you  intend  to  cultivate,  and  follow  them  through 
life,  and  observe  the  stations  which  you  have  qualified  them  to  occupy; 
and  you  have  the  measure  of  good  which,  year  after  year,  you  are  accom- 
plishing by  the  establishment  of  these  means  of  instruction.  Look  at  the 
money  that  it  costs.  You  can  calculate  it  to  a  single  cent,  both  the  prin- 
cipal investment  and  the  interest  which  it  would  yield.  But  can  you  esti- 
mate the  intellectual  service,  and  moral  advantages  which  will  accrue  to 
you  and  your  children,  by  this  expenditure  ?  The  one  is  to  you  as  the 
small  dust  of  the  balance.  Were  it  all  lost,  you  would  hardly  think  of  it. 
You  would  not  think  it  worth  while  to  smile  at  a  man,  who  should  say, 
Pavvtucket  is  ruined,  for  it  has  lost  a  sum  equal  to  that  which  all  its  means 
of  education  have  cost  But  suppose  that,  what  that  sum  has  purchased 
were  lost ;  suppose  that  your  schools  were  shut  up,  and  your  whole  pop- 
ulation consigned  to  ignorance  ;  that  henceforth  reading,  writing,  and  all 
the  knowledge  which  they  unfold,  should  be  taught  or  learned  here  no 
more  for  ever;  then  would  Pawtucketin  reality  be  ruined.  Every  virtu- 
ous and  intelligent  family  would  flee  from  your  border,  and  very  soon 
your  name  would  be  an  opprobrium  to  New  England.  I  ask.  then,  in 
view  of  all  this,  is  there  any  money  which  you  invest  that  brings  you  in 
so  rich  a  revenue,  as  that  which  you  devote  to  the  cause  of  education  ? 

But  I  ought  to  apologize  for  occupying  so  much  larger  a  portion  of 
your  time  than  I  intended.  I  must  however,  even  now.  break  off  abrupt- 
ly, and  give  place  to  others  who  are  much  more  deserving  than  myselfte 
be  heard  on  this  occasion.  I  will  therefore  add  but  a  single  suggestion. 
Let  this  effort  which  you  have  made,  be  but  the  first  step  in  your  pro- 
gress. Cultivate  enlarged  and  liberal  views  of  your  duties  to  the  young 
who  are  coming  after  you.  and  of  the  means  that  are  given  you  to  dis- 
charge them.  A  place  as  large  as  this,  can  perfectly  well  provide  for  all 
its  youth  of  both  sexes,  as  good  an  education  as  any  one  can  desire. 


456  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

What  we  are  capable  of  doing  in  this  respect,  is  so  little  known,  that  any 
public  spirited  and  united  population,  as  wealthy  as  this,  can  easily  place 
itselfin  the  vanguard  in  this  march  of  improvement.  It  is  in  your  power 
so  to  cultivate  the  mind  and  manners  of  your  children,  that  wherever  they 
go,  they  will  take  precedence  of  those  of  their  own  age  arid  condition. 
Your  example  would  excite  others  to  follow  in  your  footsteps.  Who  can 
tell  how  widely  you  might  bless  others,  while  you  were  laboring  to  bless 
yourselves?  Are  you  prepared  to  enter  upon  so  noble  a  career  of  im- 
jirovemerit? 


REMARKS  OF  REV    MR.  OSGOOD. 

Mr.  Osgood,  of  Providence,  being  called  upon  by  the  Chairman  of  the 
School  Committee,  spoke  in  substance  as  follows : 

You  will  agree  with  me,  friends,  in  deeming  it  a  happy  circumstance, 
that  he,  whose  position  places  him  at  the  head  of  the  educational  interests 
of  this  State,  and  whose  name  stands  among  the  highest  in  the  literature 
of  our  land,  has  favored  us  with  his  presence  upon  this  occasion,  and 
borne  so  decided  witness  to  the  importance  of  a  far  nobler  popular  educa- 
tion. After  what  we  have  heard,  we  cannot  but  recognize  the  common 
interests  of  all  friends  of  sound  learning,  and  rank  the  school  and  the  uni- 
versity as  helpers  in  the  same  good  cause. 

We  have  met  to-day  to  consecrate  this  pleasant  edifice  to  the  service 
of  popular  instruction.  Solemn  prayer  has  been  offered  to  the  throne  of 
mercy,  and  honest  counsel  has  been  addressed  to  you.  This  house  is  now 
consecrated  as  a  temple  of  learning.  Do  we  feel  duly  the  significance  of 
these  exercises?  Do  we  realize  the  common  responsibility  that  we  as- 
sume by  participating  in  them  ?  This  afternoon  has  been  spent  in  mock- 
ery, unless  the  parties  here  represented  entertain  and  carry  out  serious 
convictions  of  duty. 

Let  us  feel  that  in  consecrating  this  house  to  the  purposes  of  education, 
we  consecrate  it  to  the  spirit  of  order.  Without  good  order,  education 
cannot  succeed ;  and  surely  all  will  allow  that  good  order  cannot  exist 
without  the  aid  alike  of  master  and  scholar,  parent  and  guardian.  Let 
the  teacher  have  your  hearty  co-operation  in  his  endeavors  to  regulate  his 
school.  Let  him  not  be  left  at  the  mercy  of  the  unreasonable,  who  will 
call  every  act  of  discipline,  tyranny ;  or  of  the  quarrelsome,  who  will  re- 
pent every  restraint  as  a  personality.  Encourage  in  yourselves  and  your 
children  the  idea  that  good  order  has  its  foundation  in  the  very  nature  of 
things,  in  the  plan  of  the  creation,  and  the  hearts  of  man.  There  is  or- 
der in  God's  works, — in  the  heavens  above, — on  the  earth  beneath.  We 
imitate  the  divine  mind  when  we  strive  to  do  our  work  in  accordance  with 
the  best  rules,  and  submit  passing  impulses  and  little  details  to  a  common 
standard  of  right.  Let  the  child  be  taught  to  accept  this  idea,  and  to  see 
in  the  order  of  the  school  not  so  much  the  teacher's  will  as  the  law  of 
general  good.  Let  this  idea  prevail,  and  a  new  day  will  come  over  our 
schools.  Teachers  will  be  more  careful  to  place  their  passions  under  due 
control,  by  looking  beyond  present  provocations  to  permanent  principles  ; 
and  parents  and  children  will  acknowledge  the  justice  of  proper  discipline, 
even  when  its  penalties  fall  upon  themselves.  Consecrating  this  house 
to  education,  we  consecrate  it  then  to  the  spirit  of  good  order. 

Akin  to  order  is  the  spirit  of  good  will. — that  love  that  heightens  every 
task,  and  cheers  every  labor.  Let  us  feel  that  this  building  is  set  apart 
us  the  abode  of  good  will.  In  the  simple  beauty  of  its  walls,  and  the 
neatness  of  its  arrangements,  we  see  at  once  that  it  is  intended  to  be  a 
pleasant  place,  where  the  young  shall  come  rather  in  love  than  fear.  Let 
every  thing  be  done  to  carry  out  this  idea,  and  remove  all  gloom  from  the 
work  that  here  is  to  go  forward.  Let  the  voice  of  music  be  heard  in  the 


PEDICATORY  EXERCISES  AT  NORTH  PROVIDENCE.        457 

intervals  of  study,  and  charm  away  weariness  and  discontent  Let 
courteous  manners  prevail  between  scholars  and  teachers.  Let  the  law 
of  love  be  supreme,  and  the  good  of  each  be  regarded  as  the  good  of  all. 
Let  everything  be  done  to  make  knowledge  attractive,  without  impairing 
its  solidity.  You  have  declared  your  principles  upon  this  subject  in  the 
very  structure  of  this  edifice  ;  virtually  acknowledged  the  relation  of  the 
beautiful  to  the  true,  and  applied  to  education  that  law  of  attraction  that 
pervades  all  the  plans  of  Divine  Providence.  Carry  out  these  principles 
without  fear  and  without  extravagance.  Let  not  your  care  be  given 
merely  to  make  your  dwelling-houses  attractive.  Let  there  be  no  more 
school-rooms  so  rude  and  uncleanly  as  hardly  to  be  ftt  to  shelter  well-bred 
cattle.  Let  children  learn  neatness,  taste,  and  refinement,  along  with 
their  alphabet  and  multiplication  table.  To  good  will,  under  every  one 
of  its  attractive  agencies,  this  house  should  be  devoted. 

Thus  devoted,  it  will  be  a  nursery  of  good  works.  Utility  will  go  hand 
in  hand  with  good  order  and  good  will.  In  this  community,  practical 
industry  is  the  ruling  power ;  utility  is  the  prevailing  standard.  See  to 
it  that  this  standard  is  rightly  adjusted,  and  that  we  do  not  confine  our 
idea  of  usefulness  to  worldly  or  material  interests.  As  we  hear  the  sound 
of  the  spindle  and  the  anvil,  and  see  the  spray  of  the  waterfall,  and  the 
smoke  of  the  furnace,  let  us  rejoice  at  the  large  measure  of  enterprise  and 
prosperity  that  have  been  granted  us.  But  when  we  turn  away  from 
these  things  to  look  upon  this  house  of  learning,  let  us  not  think  as  some 
base  souls  do,  that  we  have  left  utility  behind,  and  are  dealing  only  with 
what  is  visionary  and  unsubstantial.  Next  to  the  church  of  God,  let  ua 
feel  that  the  school-house  is  the  most  useful  building  in  the  community, 
and  that  from  it  should  emanate  the  knowledge,  principles,  and  habita 
that  are  to  give  life  its  direction  and  efficiency.  Reckon  in  your  estimate 
of  the  best  wealth  of  your  city,  your  schools,  and,  without  them,  regard 
all  other  wealth  as  disgraceful  covetousness  or  mental  poverty. 

Let  the  idea  of  utility  preside  over  the  direction  of  this  school,  and  all 
its  studies  tend  not  to  fill  the  memory  with  loads  of  words,  but  to  strength- 
en the  mind,  and  invigorate  and  regulate  the  will  and  all  the  active 
powers. 

Standing  as  it  does  in  so  sacred  a  seat  of  manufacturing  industry,  this 
house  has  a  peculiar  significance.  Overlooking  this  prosperous  town,  it 
serves  to  express  a  generous  creed — to  say  as  if  it  were : — "  We,  the 
people  of  North  Providence,  think  much  of  the  importance  of  industry  and 
wealth,  but  we  think  that  some  other  things  are  of  still  greater  import- 
ance, and  however  remiss  in  duty  we  may  have  been  in  time  past,  we 
mean  to  practice  upon  a  more  generous  system,  and  this  fair  temple  of 
learning,  standing  so  far  above  the  factory  and  workshop,  is  a  substantial 
testimonial  of  our  determination." 

It  is  an  interesting  fact,  that  the  first  movement  in  this  State  in  behalf 
of  popular  education  was  made,  not  by  professional  men,  nor  by  mer- 
chants, nor  any  of  the  classes  that  might  be  thought,  from  their  leisure  or 
literature,  to  advocate  the  claims  of  sound  learning,  but  by  an  association 
of  mechanics  and  manufacturers  in  Providence.  I  read  to-day,  with  great 
pleasure,  the  memorial  which  this  association  presented  to  the  Legisla- 
ture, in  the  year  1798.  I  honor  those  men  for  that  document.  But  one 
of  the  original  signers  now  survives.  Who  can  meet  that  old  man  with- 
out respect?  Who  will  not  honor  John  Rowland  even  more  for  taking 
the  lead  in  that  memorial,  than  for  having  served  under  Washington  at 
Trenton,  and  braved  death  in  the  battles  of  the  revolution?  Peace  to  his 
sturdy  heart,  and  many  good  days  yet  to  that  stout  Saxon  frame  ! 

I  must  cease  speaking  with  these  few  words  as  to  the  good  order,  good 
will  and  good  works,  to  which  this  house  of  learning  is  devoted.  May  a 
good  providence  watch  over  it.  Imagination  cannot  but  conjecture  tho 


458  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

various  scenes  of  its  future  history — picture  to  herself  the  groups  of  chil- 
dren who  shall  come  to  enjoy  its  privileges,  and  who  in  due  time  shall 
leave  its  walls  for  the  pursuits  of  maturer  life.  Prophesy  is  not  our  gift, 
except  the  prophesy  that  calculates  events  by  purposes  and  principles. 
Let  this  edifice  be  used  faithfully  for  true  purposes  and  for  just  principles, 
and  its  future  history  will  be  a  blessed  volume  in  the  annal  of  your  town 
It  will  tell  of  generations  of  noble  men  and  women,  who  have  been  educa- 
ted within  these  walls.  Arid  when  this  house  shall  have  gone  to  dust,  it 
will  have  performed  a  noble  mission,  by  being  the  nursery  of  mental  life 
that  cannot  die. 

"  Cold  in  the  dust,  the  perished  heart  may  lie, 
But  that  which  wanned  it  once,  can  never  die." 


DEDICATORY  EXERCISES  AT  CAMBRIDGE.  459 


DEDICATION  OF  THE   PUBLIC  HIGH  SCHOOL-HOUSE,  IN  CAMBRIDGE,  MASS. 

The  edifice,  which  has  just  been  erected  (1848,)  for  the  accommoda- 
tion of  the  Public  High  School  of  the  city  of  Cambridge,  is  built  of  brick, 
two  stories  high  with  a  basement,  and  is  a  substantial,  attractive  and  con- 
venient school-house,  of  which  the  citizens  of  Cambridge  may  well 
feel  proud.  The  cost,  including  land,  furniture  and  apparatus,  is  $13,500. 
The  plan  of  the  interior  is  substantially  the  same  as  that  of  the  High 
School  in  Hartford. 

The  following  account  of  the  Dedication  of  this  house  is  abridged  from 
the  Cambridge  Chronicle  for  June  29,  1848. 

The  services  were  commenced  by  the  chanting  of  the  Lord's  Prayer 
by  the  scholars  of  the  school. 

Alderman  Whitney,  in  behalf  of  the  building  committee,  transferred 
the  building  to  the  care  of  the  School  Committee,  through  the  Mayor  of 
the  city,  with  an  appropriate  address.  After  a  dedicatory  prayer  by  Rev. 
N.  Hoppin.  and  another  chant,  of  selections  from  Proverbs,  by  the  chil- 
dren, the  Mayor  addressed  remarks  to  the  audience  upon  the  relation 
of  the  High  School  to  the  other  grades  of  schools,  and  to  the  cause  of 
education  generally  in  the  city,  and  on  some  of  the  conditions  on  which 
the  success  of  this  and  the  other  schools  depended.  Addresses  were  also 
made  by  gentlemen  present,  in  which  many  pleasing  incidents  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  public  schools,  and  of  the  town  and  city  of  Cambridge,  were 
narrated,  and  many  valuable  suggestions  thrown  out,  by  which  children, 
teachers,  parents  and  school  officers  can  profit.  We  make  the  following 
extract  from  the  address  of  Rev.  Mr.  Stearns,  Chairman  of  the  High 
School  Committee. 

"  At  the  time  of  my  settlement  here  as  a  clergyman  in  this  place,  in 
December,  1S31,  there  were  in  the  town  6  school-houses,  8  school-rooms, 
8  teachers  and  about  400  scholars. 

At  this  time,  1848,  there  are  17  school-houses,  35  rooms,  44  teachers, 
and  2136  children. 

During  this  time,  it  is  true,  the  population  has  more  than  doubled,  but 
the  interest  taken  in  the  schools,  and  their  progress,  has  much  more  than 
tripled  or  quadrupled. 

If  at  that  period  any  school  committee  had  seriously  proposed  the  erec- 
tion of  such  a  building  as  this  for  a  High  School  they  would  undoubtedly 
have  been  excused  from  public  service  the  coining  year,  if  not  immedi- 
ately sent  to  Charlestovvn  as  insane.  But  the  spirit  of  improvement  has 
prevailed,  and  now  we  have  all  needed  advantages  for  making  good 
Bcholars,  who  shall  be  an  honor  to  their  parents,  and  to  their  generation. 

But,  Mr.  Mayor.it  cannot  be  too  deeply  impressed  on  the  minds  of  our 
youth  that  the  means  of  education,  are  not  education  itself.  We  may 
have  good  school-houses,  fine  libraries,  superior  collections  of  philosophi- 
cal apparatus,  and  the  best  of  teachers,  with  miserable  scholars.  There 
are  means  of  improvement  in  creation  all  around  us — good  influences 
ascend  to  us  from  the  earth  and  come  down  to  us  from  the  sky. 
The  sun  is  a  teacher,  the  evening  stars  impart  knowledge,  while  every 
flower  is  eloquent  with  wisdom.  But  what  intelligence  do  all  these  out- 
ward instructors  communicate  to  the  ox  who  grazes  without  reflection,  or 
to  the  horse  who  eats  his  provender  without  thanksgiving?  Hardly  more 
will  books,  and  maps,  and  pleasant  seats,  and  air-pumps,  and  scientific 


460  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

lectures,  do  for  a  doltish  mind.  The  outward  may  stimulate  to  improve- 
ment, but  all  good  action  springs  from  within.  There  must  be  in  the 
scholar's  own  mind  a  strong  desire  for  knowledge,  a  spirit  aspiring  to  ex- 
cellence, a  force  of  moral  purpose  which  no  small  difficulties  can  vranquish, 
or  but  little  which  is  valuable  will  be  accomplished. 

Mr.  Chairman,  we  have  great  hopes  from  the  school  now  to  be  organ- 
ized in  this  house, — and  these  teachers,  and  these  parents,  and  these 
scholars,  must  see  to  it.  that  we  and  our  fellow  citizens  are  not  disap- 
pointed. 

This  school  is  intended  to  carry  forward  and  complete  the  education  of 
our  children — I  mean  complete  it  as  far  as  it  goes  — for  education  never 
can  be  completed.  It  is  a  work  which  extends  beyond  the  school-room 
into  active  life,  all  through  time  into  eternity.  It  is  the  destiny  of  good 
minds  to  improve  for  ever.  They  will  go  on  rising,  expanding,  increasing 
in  true  wisdom  as  the  endless  ages  pass  along,  and  their  progress  will  be 
co-eternal  with  the  eternity  of  God.  We  wish  to  begin  right  with  the 
young  in  their  earliest  years,  and  to  carry  them  forward  in  this  school  till 
they  are  prepared  for  service  and  usefulness  in  society,  and  the  good  be- 

g  innings  of  immortal  advancement  are  firmly  laid.  We  wish  to  attend 
ere  to  the  proper  development  of  their  faculties,  to  see  that  these  unfold 
themselves  in  just  proportions,  and  that  our  children  are  qualified  to  meet 
the  demands  of  the  age  and  devote  their  powers  to  life's  best  ends. 

We  establish  this  school,  also,  with  our  schools  generally,  as  a  preserv- 
ative against  vice.  When  I  look  round,  as  I  do  now,  upon  more  than 
one  hundred  children  fresh  as  a  flower  garden  in  the  morning,  it  seems 
hardly  in  good  taste,  to  suggest  that  any  of  them  may  become  the  vic- 
tims of  evil,  and  sink  in  disgrace  from  society.  And  yet,  it  is  possible  that 
among  these  young  men  and  young  women  too,  there  may  be  some  one 
or  more  who  will  live  to  be  the  objects  of  public  indignation  and  of  self- 
ecorn.  God  forbid !  But  juvenile  depravity  has  fearfully  increased 
within  a  few  years !  And  no  one  can  tell  who  will  be  among  the  next 
victims.  Mr.  Chairman,  I  once  had  a  dream— and  it  was  among  the  most 
terrible  dreams  which  ever  troubled  my  sleeping  imagination.  I  saw  a 
bright  and  beautiful  boy  playing  innocently  upon  the  green,  suddenly  the 
grass  began  to  move,  the  earth  to  undulate  till  it  became  water,  and 
the  boy  went  down  in  an  instant,  and  nothing  was  left  of  him  but  three  or 
four  air  bubbles  on  the  surface.  I  awoke  in  horror,  and  was  troubled  all 
day  by  this  midnight  vision.  I  thought  then,  and  I  have  ever  since 
thought,  that  it  was  a  vivid  illustration  of  the  course  and  end  of  many  a 
youth.  They  eport  thoughtlessly  among  the  green  and  flowery  fields  of 
temptation.  They  begin  to  yield,  principle  gives  way,  and  they  go  down 
and  are  lost  as  respects  character  for  ever.  We  wish  to  render  the  treach- 
erous earth  under  them  firmer.  We  would  change  it  into  the  hard 
granite  of  virtue,  we  would  have  them  stand  on  the  immovable  rock  of 
ages. 

We  hope,  also.  Mr.  Mayor,  from  this  school  an  advantage  to  the  adult 
community.  The  benefits  of  an  institution  like  this  do  not  terminate  with 
the  children.  By  a  reflex  influence,  they  return  to  the  families  from 
which  our  children  come.  It  is  no  unheard  of  thing  for  a  rough,  hard, 
uneducated  man  to  be  mellowed  and  transformed  by  The  influences  which 
his  children  and  his  children's  children  bring  home  from  the  churches  and 
the  schools.  A  good  school  does  excite  the  adult  mind  ;  it  awakens  in- 
terest in  education,  and  promotes  improvement.  If  this  school  fulfills  our 
expectations,  it  will  be  to  the  community  a  moral  and  intellectual  sun, 
throwing  light  into  every  dwelling. 

We  believe  also  that  it  will  act  happily  upon  our  younger  schools.  It 
will  be  to  them  an  object  of  hope  and  honorable  ambition.  They  will 
take  their  examples  from  it — and  our  little  children  from  the  first  will  be 


DEDICATORY  EXERCISES  AT  CAMBRIDGE.  461 

aspiring  and  reaching  towards  it.  But  I  must  stop,  for  I  am  impatient, 
as  doubtless  you  and  this  assembly  must  be,  for  the  instructions  which 
are  to  fall  from  more  eloquent  lips  than  mine.  Children,  consider  how 
much  is  depending  upon  you.  Be  determined  to  fix  down  to  hard  study, 
to  do  right ;  and  on  the  first  principle  of  all  true  wisdom,  "  Remember 
now  thy  Creator  in  the  days  of  thy  youth." 

After  appropriate  introductory  addresses  by  the  School  Committee 
and  Mayor  of  Cambridge,  Hon.  Edward  Everett,  President  of  Harvard 
College,  responded  to  an  invitation  to  address  the  audience,  as  follows : — 

May  it  please  your  Honor : — 

Connected  as  I  am  with  another  place  of  education,  of  a  kind  which  is 
commonly  regarded  as  of  a  higher  order,  it  is  precisely  in  that  connection, 
that  I  learn  to  feel  and  appreciate  the  importance  of  good  schools.  I  am 
not  so  ignorant  of  the  history  of  our  fathers,  as  not  to  know,  that  the 
spirit,  which  founded  and  fostered  Harvard  College,  is  the  spirit  which 
has  founded  and  upheld  and  will  continue  to  support  and  cherish  the 
schools  of  ISew  England.  I  know  well,  sir,  that  Universities  and  Col- 
leges can  neither  flourish  nor  even  stand  alone.  You  might  as  well 
attempt  to  build  your  second  and  third  stories  in  the  air,  without  a  first 
floor  or  abasement,  as  to  have  collegiate  institutions  without  good  schools 
for  preparatory  education,  and  for  the  diffusion  of  general  information 
throughout  the  community.  If  the  day  should  ever  come,  which  I  do  not 
fear  in  our  beloved  country,  when  this  general  education  shall  be  neg- 
lected and  these  preparatory  institutions  allowed  to  perish  ; — if  the  day 
should  ever  come  (of  which  I  have  no  apprehension)  Avhen  the  schools  of 
New  England  shall  go  down,  depend  upon  it.  sir,  the  colleges  v/ill  go 
with  them.  It  will  be  with  them,  as  it  was  with  the  granite  warehouses, 
the  day  before  yesterday  in  Federal  street,  in  Boston  ;  if  the  piers  at  the 
foundation  give  way,  the  upper  stories  will  come  down  in  one  undistin- 
guished ruin. 

I  anticipate  no  such  disaster,  Mr.  Mayor,  though  it  must  be  admittad 
that  we  live  in  an  a^e  of  revolutions,  of  which  every  steamer  brings  us 
some  fresh  and  astonishing  account.  But  our  revolutions  are  of  a  more 
auspicious  character,  and  it  occurred  to  me  as  1  was  coming  down  with 
your  worthy  associate  (Mr.  Whitney.)  and  your  respected  predecessor 
(Mr.  Green.)  to  whom  we  have  just  listened  with  so  much  pleasure,  that 
we  were  traversing  a  region,  in  which  a  more  important  revolution  com- 
menced no  very  long  time  since,  and  is  still  in  progress. — far  more  impor- 
tant for  us  and  our  children. — than  any  of  those  which  have  lately  con- 
vulsed the  continent  of  Europe.  I  do  not  now  refer  to  the  great  politi- 
cal and  historical  events  of  which  this  neighborhood  was  the  theatre ;  of 
which  the  monuments  are  in  sight  from  these  windows,  bat  to  a  revolu- 
tion quiet  and  silent  in  its  origin  and  progress,  unostentatious  in  outward 
manifestations,  but  imparting  greater  change  and  warranting  brighter 
hopes  for  most  of  those  who  hear  me, — for  our  young  friends  before  us. — 
than  any  of  the  most  startling  events  that  stare  upon  us  in  capitals  in  the 
columns  of  the  newspapers,  after  every  arrival  from  Europe.  The  Rev- 
erend Mr.  Stearns  has  beautifully  sketched  some  of  the  most  important 
features  of  this  peaceful  revolution. 

U'hen  I  entered  college,  Mr.  Mayor,  (and  I  believe  I  shall  not  tell  the 
audience  quite  how  many  years  ago  that  is ;  you  can  do  it,  sir,  but  I  will 
thank  you  not  to.)  there  were  a  few  straggling  houses,  shops,  and  taverns 
along  the  Main  street  at  Cambridge  port.  All  back  of  this  street  to  the 
north,  and  I  believe  almost  all  south  jf  it  to  the  river, — the  entire  district, 


462  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

in  the  centre  of  which  we  are  now  assembled,  was  in  a  state  of  nature  ; 
pretty  equally  divided  between  barren  pasturage,  salt-marsh,  and  what  I 
must  admit  had  no  mean  attraction  for  us  freshmen,  whortleberry  swamp. 
Not  one  of  the  high  roads  had  been  cut.  which  now  traverse  the  plain 
between  Main  street  and  the  old  road  to  Charlestown.  East  Cambridge 
did  not  exist  even  in  the  surveyor's  imagination.  There  was  not  a  church 
nor  a  public  school  east  of  Dr.  Holmes'  and  Old  Cambridge  Common; 
and  if  any  one  had  prophesied  that  within  forty  years  a  population  like 
this  would  cover  the  soil, — with  its  streets  and  houses,  and  gardens,  its 
numerous  school-houses  and  churches,  its  conservatories  breathing  all  the 
sweets  of  the  tropics,  its  private  libraries  equal  to  the  choicest  in  the  land, 
and  all  the  other  appendages  of  a  high  civilization,  he  would  have  been 
set  down  as  a  visionary  indeed.  But  this  change,  this  revolution  has 
taken  place  even  within  the  life  time  of  the  venerable  lady  (Mrs.  Mer- 
riam)  introduced  to  us  in  such  a  pleasing  manner  by  Mr.  Stearns  ;  and 
we  are  assembled  this  morning  to  take  a  respectful  notice  of  what  may 
be  called  its  crowning  incident,  the  opening  of  a  High  School  in  that 

Frimitive  whortleberry  swamp.  I  believe  I  do  not  over-state  matters  when 
say,  that  no  more  important  event  than  this  is  likely  to  occur,  in  the 
course  of  the  lives  of  many  of  those  here  assembled.  As  far  as  our  in- 
terests are  concerned,  all  the  revolutions  in  Europe  multiplied  tenfold  are 
nothing  to  it.  No,  sir,  not  if  the  north  were  again  to  pour  forth  its  myri- 
ads on  central  and  southern  Europe  and  break  up  the  existing  govern- 
ments and  states  into  one  general  wreck,  it  would  not  be  an  article  of  in- 
telligence at  all  so  important  to  us  as  the  opening  of  a  new  school.  No, 
my  young  friends,  this  is  a  day  which  may  give  an  auspicious  turn  to  your 
whole  career  in  life  j  may  affect  your  best  interests  not  merely  for  time 
but  for  eternity. 

There  is  certainly  nothing  in  which  the  rapid  progress  of  the  country  is 
more  distinctly  marked  than  its  schools.  It  is  not  merely  their  multipli- 
cation in  numbers,  but  their  improvement  as  places  of  education.  A 
school  forty  years  ago  was  a  very  different  afiliir  from  what  it  is  now. 
The  meaning  of  the  word  is  changed.  A  little  reading,  writing,  and 
ciphering,  a  very  little  grammar ;  and  for  those  destined  for  college,  a 
little  Latin  and  Greek,  very  indifferently  taught,  were  all  we  got  at  a 
common  town  school  in  my  day.  The  range  was  narrow ;  the  instruc- 
tion superficial.  In  our  modern  school  system,  taking  it  as  a  whole  com- 
posed of  its  several  parts  in  due  gradation, — viz.  the  primary,  the  district, 
and  the  High  School, — the  fortunate  pupil  not  only  enjoys  a  very 
thorough  course  of  instruction  in  the  elementary  branches,  but  gets  a 
good  foundation  in  French,  a  good  preparation  for  college,  if  he  desires  it, 
according  to  the  present  advanced  standard  of  requirement ;  a  general 
acquaintance  with  the  applied  mathematics,  the  elements  of  natural  phi- 
losophy, some  suitable  information  as  to  the  form  of  government  and 
political  system  under  which  we  live,  and  no  inconsiderable  practice  in 
the  noble  arts  of  writing  and  speaking  our  mother  tongue. 

It  might  seem,  at  first,  that  this  is  too  wide  a  circle  for  a  school.  But 
the  experience  of  our  well  conducted  schools  has  abundantly  shown  that 
it  is  not  too  extensive.  With  faithful  and  competent  teachers  and  wil- 
ling and  hearty  learners,  all  the  branches  1  have  named  and  others  I  have 
passed  over  can  be  attended  to  with  advantage,  between  the  ages  of  four 
and  sixteen. 

Such  being  the  case,  our  School  Committees  have  done  no  more  than 
their  duty,  in  prescribing  this  extensive  course  and  furnishing  to  master 
and  pupils  the  means  of  pursuing  it.  I  cannot,  tell  you.  sir,  how  much  I 
have  been  gratified  at  hastily  looking  into  the  alcove  behind  us.  As  I 
stepped  into  it  this  morning,  Mr.  Smith,  the  intelligent  master  of  the 
school,  pointed  out  to  me  the  beautiful  electrical  machine  behind  the  door 


DEDICATORY  EXERCISES  AT  CAMBRIDGE.  4(J3 

with  the  just  remark  that  my  venerable  predecessor.  President  Punster, 
would  not  have  known  what  it  was.  No,  sir,  nor  would  the  most  eminent 
philosopher  in  the  world  before  the  time  of  Franklin.  Lord  Bacon  would 
not  have  known  what  it  was.  nor  Sir  Isaac  Newton.  Mr.  Smith  reminded 
me  of  the  notion  of  Cotton  Mather  (one  of  the  most  learned  men  of  his 
day.)  that  lightning  proceeded  from  the  Prince  of  the  Power  of  the  Air, 
by  which  he  accounted  for  the  fact  that  it  was  so  apt  to  strike  the  spires 
of  churches.  Cotton  Mather  would  have  come  nearer  the  truth,  if  he  had 
called  it  a  shining  manifestation  of  the  power  and  skill,  by  which  the 
Great  Author  of  the  Universe  works  out  some  of  the  mighty  miracles  of 
creation  and  nature.  And  only  think,  sir,  that  these  newly  discovered 
mysteries  of  the  material  world,  unknown  to  the  profoundest  sages  of 
elder  days,  are  so  effectually  brought  down  to  the  reach  of  common 
schools  in  our  day,  that  these  young  friends,  before  they  are  finally  dis- 
missed from  these  walls,  will  be  made  acquainted  with  not  a  few  of  the 
wonderful  properties  of  the  subtle  element,  evolved  and  condensed  by  that 
machine,  and  which  recent  science  has  taught  to  be  but  different  forms  of 
one  principle,  whether  it  flame  across  the  heavens  in  the  midnight  storm, 
or  guide  the  mariner  across  the  pathless  ocean; — or  leap  from  city  to  city 
across  the  continent  as  swiftly  as  the  thought  of  which  it  is  the  vehicle  ; 
and  which  I  almost  venture  to  predict,  before  some  here  present  shall 
taste  of  death,  will,  by  some  still  more  sublime  generalization,  be  identi- 
fied with  the  yet  hidden  principle  which  thrills  through  the  nerves  of  ani- 
mated beings,  and  binds  life  to  matter,  by  the  ties  of  sensation. 

But  while  you  do  well,  sir,  in  your  High  School  to  make  provision  for 
these  advanced  studies,  I  know  that  as  long  as  it  remains  under  your  in- 
struction, the  plain  elementary  branches  will  not  be  undervalued.  There 
is  perhaps  a  tendency  in  that  direction  in  some  of  our  modern  schools :  I 
venture  to  hope  it  will  not  be  encouraged  here.  I  know  it  is  not  to  be 
the  province  of  this  school  to  teach  the  elements ;  but  I  am  sure  you  will 
show  that  you  entertain  sound  views  of  their  importance.  I  hold,  sir, 
that  to  read  the  English  language  well,  that  is  with  intelligence,  feeling, 
spirit  and  effect ;— to  write  with  dispatch,  a  neat,  handsome,  legible  hand, 
(for  it  is  after  all.  a  great  object  in  writing  to  have  others  able  to  read 
what  you  write.)  and  to  be  master  of  the  four  rules  of  arithmetic,  so  as 
to  dispose  at  once  with  accuracy  of  every  question  of  figures  which  comes 
up  in  practical  life  : — I  say  I  call  this  a  good  education ;  and  if  you  add 
the  ability  to  write  pure  grammatical  English,  with  the  help  of  very  few 
hard  words.  I  regard  it  as  an  excellent  education.  These  are  the  tools ; 
you  can  do  much  with  them,  but  you  are  helpless  without  them.  They 
are  the  foundation  ;  and  unless  you  begin  with  these,  all  your  flashy  at- 
tainments, a  little  natural  philosophy,  and  a  little  mental  philosophy,  a 
little  physiology  and  a  little  geology,  and  all  the  other  ologiesand  osophies, 
are  but  ostentatious  rubbish. 

There  is  certainly  no  country  in  the  world  in  which  so  much  money  is 
paid  for  schooling  as  in  ours.  This  can  be  proved  by  figures.  I  believe 
there  is  no  country  where  the  common  schools  are  so  good.  But  they 
may  be  improved.  It  is  not  enough  to  erect  commodious  school-houses  ; 
or  compensate  able  teachers,  and  then  leave  them,  masters  and  pupils,  to 
themselves.  A  school  is  not  a  clock  which  you  can  wind  up  and  then 
leave  it  to  go  of  itself.  It  is  an  organized  living  body :  it  has  sensibili- 
ties ;  it  craves  sympathy.  You  must  not  leave  the  School  Committee  to 
do  all  the  work.  Your  teachers  want  the  active  countenance  of  the  whole 
body  of  parents,  of  the  whole  intelligent  community.  I  am  sure  you.  Mr. 
Smith,  would  gladly  put  up  with  a  little  injudicious  interference  in  single 
cases,  if  you  could  have  the  active  sympathies  of  the  whole  body  of 
parents  to  fall  back  upon  in  delicate  and  difficult  cases,  and  to  support  and 
cheer  you  under  the  burthen  of  your  labors,  from  day  to  day.  I  think 


464  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 

this  matter  deserves  more  attention  than  it  has  received  ;  and  if  so  small 
a  number  as  thirty  parents  would  agree  together,  to  come  to  the  school, 
some  one  of  them,  each  in  his  turn,  but  once  a  month,  or  rather  if  but  25 
or  26  would  do  it,  it  would  give  your  teacher  the  support  and  countenance 
of  a  parent's  presence  every  day;  at  a  cost  to  each  individual  of  ten  or 
eleven  days  in  the  year.  Would  not  the  good  to  be  effected  be  worth  the 
sacrifice  ? 

I  have  already  spoken  too  long.  Mr.  Mayor,  and  will  allude  to  but  one 
other  topic.  In  most  things,  as  1  have  said,  connected  with  education,  we 
are  incalculably  in  advance  of  other  days: — in  some,  perhaps,  we  have 
fallen  below  their  standard.  I  know,  sir,  old  men  are  apt  to  make  unfa- 
vorable contrasts  between  the  present  time  and  the  past ;  and  if  I  do  not 
soon  begin  to  place  myself  in  that  class,  others  will  do  it  for  me.  But  I 
really  think  that  in  some  things,  belonging,  perhaps,  it  will  be  thought,  to 
the  minor  morals,  the  present  promising  generation  of  youth  might  learn 
something  of  their  grandfathers,  if  not  their  fathers.  When  I  first  went 
to  a  village  school,  sir,  I  remember  it  as  yesterday ; — I  seem  still  to  hold 
by  one  hand  for  protection,  (I  was  of  the  valiant  age  of  three  years)  to 
an  elder  sister's  apron  ; — with  the  other  I  grasped  my  primer,  a  volume 
of  about  two  and  a  half  inches  in  length,  which  formed  then  the  sum  total 
of  my  library,  and  which  had  lost  the  blue  paper  cover  from  one  corner, 
(my  first  misfortune  in  life ;)  I  say  it  was  the  practice  then,  as  we  were 
trudging  along  to  school,  to  dra.w  up  by  the  road-side,  if  a  traveller,  a 
stranger,  or  a  person  in  years,  passed  along,  "  and  make  our  manners,"  as 
it  was  called.  The  little  girls  courtesied,  the  boys  made  a  bow;  it  was  not 
done  with  much  grace,  I  suppose:  but  there  was  a  civility  and  decency 
about  it.  which  did  the  children  good,  and  produced  a  pleasing  impression 
on  those  who  witnessed  it.  The  age  of  village  chivalry  is  past,  never  to 
return.  These  manners  belong  to  a  forgotten  order  of  things.  They  are 
too  precise  and  rigorous  for  this  enlightened  age.  I  sometimes  fear  the 
pendulum  has  swung  too  far  in  the  opposite  extreme.  Last  winter  I  was 
driving  into  town  in  a  carriage  closed  behind,  but  open  in  front.  There 
was  in  company  with  me,  the  Rev.  President  Woods,  of  Bowdoin  Col- 
lege, Maine,  and  that  distinguished  philanthropist  and  excellent  citizen, 
Mr.  Amos  Lawrence.  Well,  sir,  we  happened  to  pass  a  school-house 
just  as  the  boys  (to  use  the  common  expression)  were  "let  out."  I  sup- 
pose the  little  men  had  just  been  taught  within  doors  something  about  the 
laws,  which  regulate  the  course  of  projectiles,  and  determine  the  curves 
in  which  they  move.  Intent  on  a  practical  demonstration,  and  tempted 
by  the  convenient  material,  I  must  say  they  put  in  motion  a  quantity  ot 
spherical  bodies,  in  the  shape  of  snow  balls,  which  brought  the  doctrine 
quite  home  to  us  wayfarers,  and  made  it  wonderful  that  we  got  off  with 
no  serious  inconvenience,  which  was  happily  the  case.  This  I  thought 
was  an  instance  of  free  and  easy  manners,  verging  to  the  opposite  ex- 
treme of  the  old  fashioned  courtesy,  which  I  have  just  described.  I  am 
quite  sure  that  the  boys  of  this  school  would  be  the  last  to  indulge  an  ex- 
periment attended  with  so  much  risk  to  the  heads  of  innocent  third 
persons. 

Nothing  remains,  sir,  but  to  add  my  best  wishes  for  teachers  and  pu- 
pils ; — You  are  both  commencing  under  the  happiest  auspices.  WThen  1 
consider  that  there  is  not  one  of  you.  my  young  friends,  who  does  not  en- 
joy gratuitously  the  opportunity  of  obtaining  a  better  school  education, 
than  we  could  have  bought,  Mr.  Mayor,  when  we  were  boys,  with  the 
wealth  of  the  Indies,  I  cannot  but  think  that  each  one  of  you,  boys  and 
girls,  will  be  ready  to  say  with  grateful  hearts,  the  lines  have  fallen  to 
me  in  pleasant  places ;  yea,  I 


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